T. V. KRYUKOVA

Post-graduate student Institute of Africa, Russian Academy of Sciences

Keywords: Nigeria, Boko Haram, terrorism, Islamism, IS

Boko Haram is a radical Islamist group that until recently operated mainly in the north-east of Nigeria. It is characterized by a high level of intensity of terrorist actions, a large number of followers and the brutality of violence directed, including against Muslim civilians^. Since the beginning of its activities in 2009, more than 15 thousand people have been killed by militants, of which about ^{thousand in 2015.2}, over one and a half million have become refugees.

The most high-profile Boko Haram action, which received a wide response around the world, was the abduction in April 2014 of more than 270 schoolgirls in the village of Chibok, in Borno State. The fate of many of the girls is still unknown. In March 2015, Boko Haram fighters pledged allegiance to the Islamic State (IS), ³ and the organization currently has the self-designation "West African Province of the Islamic State" and is a structural unit of the IS.

The geography of the group's terrorist activities has expanded significantly: Boko Haram militants are now attacking villages, towns and military bases in neighboring countries, not just in Nigeria.

Boko Haram does not exist as a single organization. It is organized according to the network principle, and at least 6 autonomous groups operate on its behalf, linked together not so much organizationally as ideologically. ⁴ The largest of them is headed by Abubakar Shekau, who after the death of Mohammed Yusuf, the first leader of the group to declare himself his successor. He is responsible for many of the bloody terrorist attacks carried out by Boko Haram in recent years. In 2012, the US State Department recognized Shekau as a terrorist and put him on the wanted list. Mention should also be made of the Ansara group, a breakaway from Boko Haram and known for high-profile abductions of foreigners.

Boko Haram also resorts to kidnappings for ransom, and its fighters also exist through robberies, raids on banks and military bases, providing themselves with money, weapons and ammunition. The group is also funded by local sponsors - politicians from the north who use it as a tool to fight political opponents, as well as religious figures and businessmen committed to religious extremism.⁵

HOW BOKO HARAM EMERGED

Boko Haram began as a group of radical youth who gathered in a mosque in Maiduguri, Borno State, to listen to the charismatic preacher Mohammed Yusuf preach. Mohammed Yusuf, an adherent of the Salafi teachings, ⁶ argued that the Western model of education, as well as the Western way of life, contradict the holy book of Muslims - the Koran, and therefore should be banned*. Especially quickly, his ideas became popular among young people.

It is important to mention that there were calls for banning the Western model of education in northern Nigeria as early as the 1980s. At that time, several groups were active, including the Izala and Maitatsine movements⁷. Their goals were similar in many ways-a return to pure Islam, purifying Islam of various innovations, focusing on the faith and lifestyle of the first Muslim communities, the so-called righteous ancestors, the introduction of Sharia law, and the creation of an Islamic state. The most radical of these movements refused to recognize the legitimacy of secular power and took the path of armed struggle against it.

The extremely difficult socio-economic situation of the population served as a breeding ground for the emergence of such movements in the north of the country. Devastation, unemployment and poverty reigned in the region. There were problems with water and energy supply-

* Translated from the Hausa language, Boko Haram means " Western education is forbidden." author's note).

lack of proper roads, lack of schools and hospitals. People were losing confidence in the authorities.

As the Russian scholar L. V. Geveling rightly pointed out, "all conflicts are reduced to the unmet needs of rather large groups of the population, and in any conflict that arises against the background of large-scale social changes and destabilization, ambitious political leaders are able to gain support by presenting their position as a struggle for social justice, national or religious identity." ⁸

This is exactly the kind of leader Mohammed Yusuf turned out to be. His goal was to create an Islamic state in the north of the country that would be able to cope with disease, hunger, poverty and unemployment-problems that the secular government could not solve. Initially, Yusuf intended to achieve his goal exclusively by peaceful means.

However, the most radical members of the group still won him over to their side and sent Boko Haram on the path of violence. Among them, Abubakar Shekau and Aminu Tashen-Ilimi stood out. They were the ones who broke away from the Yusuf movement in 2002 and headed their own movement, which is associated with the first clashes with the police and the first attacks on police stations.

Mohammed Yusuf gradually became imbued with their radicalism and began to openly criticize the government, accusing it of corruption and inaction. He further increased his influence by enlisting the support of Ali Modu Sheriffa, a politician and businessman from a prominent family in Maiduguri. Sheriff, however, has never acknowledged his connection to Yusuf and Boko Haram. However, there is evidence of an agreement made between him and Yusuf, who pledged to help Sheriff win the election and take over as governor. In response, Sheriff promised to introduce Sharia law throughout Borno State, as well as provide Boko Haram members with several seats in the government. In addition, Sheriff financed Yusuf through third parties.

The rift between Sheriff and Yusuf began in 2003, when the Sheriff, who took over as governor with Yusuf's help, failed to keep his promise to introduce Sharia law in the state.

The official authorities in Abuja have repeatedly filed charges against Yusuf, issued arrest warrants for his arrest, but thanks to his connections with influential people in Borno State, including the deputy governor, all problems with law enforcement agencies were quickly resolved, and the case never reached court. For example, in December 2008, the Borno State Government charged Yusuf with terrorist activities. He was arrested, but soon released on bail, which was reportedly helped by four influential Christian Nigerians. The latter circumstance gave rise to speculation about a conspiracy-they say that Yusuf is almost their agent, and the purpose of his actions is to undermine the power of Muslims in the region.

In the summer of 2009, new clashes with the police began, which by July had escalated into a full-scale armed clash. Boko Haram militants raided police stations and officers ' homes in Maiduguri and several other northern cities, including Kano, Bauchi and Potiskum. The military brutally suppressed the mutiny, killing about 800 members of ^the group9.

During these clashes, Yusuf, along with his closest associates, was captured and soon killed. The circumstances of his death are still unclear. Law enforcement agencies claim that he was killed accidentally, as a result of a shootout that ensued. However, the members of the group themselves believe that the police killed him deliberately, without waiting for the trial and investigation. There is also an opinion that the Sheriff could have been behind Yusuf's murder, trying to cover up the traces of their connection. However, the Sheriff himself denies this.

After the events of July 2009 and the death of Yusuf, the leader of Boko Haram, the group went underground, but in 2010 it re-established itself. Declaring that she would avenge the death of her leader, she began to smash police stations and attack military bases. Islamists demanded that the government punish those responsible for Yusuf's murder, restore the mosque destroyed by security forces and release their jailed colleagues. Initially operating only against the police and the Government, the group soon expanded its attacks to include Muslim clerics, Christians and civilians who do not share its views, and began attacking schools and UN agencies. In other words, it was involved in active terrorist activities.

In 2013, the then President of Nigeria, Goodluck Jonathan, declared a state of emergency in three states of the country - Borno, Yobe and Adamawa.¹⁰ A year later, the UN Security Council added Boko Haram to the list of terrorist organizations-its fighters were suspected of links with Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb. There is evidence that members of the group "were trained together with Al-Qaeda militants, in particular, they learned how to create improvised explosive devices"¹¹. There is an opinion that at that time "Boko Ha-

ram has also maintained links with the Islamist group Al-Shabaab in Somalia12, which has repeatedly committed terrorist acts, for example, on June ²⁵, 2016, its militants attacked a hotel in Mogadishu. The victims of the attack were 7 people, 10 were injured ¹³.

In response to the security measures taken by the authorities, Boko Haram has only made its tactics and methods of fighting more complex every year. From skirmishes with police officers and attacks on officials, it has moved on to mass killings of civilians, from isolated attacks on government offices and schools to systematic seizure of territories, from shootings to suicide bombings. Moreover, the militants actively use women and children to commit terrorist attacks.

NIGERIA AND ITS NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES ' FIGHT AGAINST BOKO HARAM

In the spring of 2015, the country held regular presidential elections. Then-leader H. Jonathan, who was criticized for extremely inept and ineffective actions against militants, as well as for the high level of corruption in the country, was replaced as president by his main political opponent, Mohammad Buhari. Since his first days in power, he has demonstrated a vigorous approach to the fight against Boko Haram, ¹⁴ replacing senior military personnel and moving his command headquarters from the capital, Abuja, to Maiduguri.¹⁵

In the fall of 2014, Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, Chad, and Benin formed a regional coalition, the Multinational Joint Task Force, with a total of 8,750 personnel (3,500 each from Nigeria and Chad, 750 from Cameroon and Niger, and 250 from Benin).¹⁶. The active actions of the new President and his administration, as well as the coalition forces, have turned the tide in the fight against Islamists. Currently, regional forces continue to attack militant positions, mainly in the forests and hills of northeastern Nigeria.

As for the diplomatic methods of resolving the crisis, they did not justify themselves. Although the authorities repeatedly tried to bring the militants to the negotiating table, they usually ignored such proposals. An attempt of this kind was made by President Buhari in December 2015. Then the president said that he intends to hold talks with Boko Haram leaders to secure the release of 200 captured schoolgirls. However, today the problem is to find a leader of the group who will be authorized to participate in the negotiations. "If a credible Boko Haram leader shows up and tells us where the girls are, we will be ready to negotiate without preconditions," the President said.¹⁷

After less than a year in office, President Buhari said the group was technically defeated and was now on the run. However, despite the remarkable progress made in the fight against Boko Haram, such statements seem somewhat premature and not very encouraging for many Nigerians and their neighbors, who are still the target of terrorist attacks, as well as for hundreds of thousands of people who have had to change their place of residence as a result of the ongoing conflict. In the two weeks of February 2016 alone, more than 260 people were killed in militant attacks on villages in Borno State.¹⁸

What is stopping the Nigerian army and regional forces from destroying the militants and overcoming the protracted crisis? A few years ago, experts called the lack of funding one of the main reasons. In interviews with journalists, soldiers of the Nigerian army complained that they were very poorly equipped, that they lacked basic and most necessary weapons. According to them, they have only scant equipment and non-functioning vehicles at their disposal. Stories about regular army soldiers fleeing from militants were widely replicated.¹⁹

Over the past year, there has been almost no such evidence in the press, and it can be assumed that the funding situation is gradually changing for the better, including thanks to the help of Western countries that provide financial and military assistance to Nigeria and regional forces.

At the same time, some experts note that the problem lies not at all in insufficient funding. This, in particular, says Sambo Dasuki, a former colonel and national security adviser to President Goodluck Jonathan.: "Anyone who has ever seen the amount of weapons that Boko Haram militants seize during raids on military bases in Nigeria will never say that our soldiers are short of weapons... We have enough weapons to successfully resist the militants. " ²⁰ Nevertheless, he believes that the supply of more modern and technological weapons from Western countries, primarily the United States and Great Britain, will be very useful. The main disadvantage of the Nigerian armed forces, in his view, is the lack of combat training of soldiers.²¹

Among other reasons for the failure of the Nigerian army in Bor-

Boko Haram has the highest level of corruption in the country, which almost negates all the efforts of the military. According to President Buhari, over the past 10 years, government officials have stolen about $150 billion of budget funds.²² The Head of State is actively engaged in solving this problem. In particular, he initiated the creation of an anti-corruption advisory committee in Nigeria. He also took part in the first anti-corruption summit held in London in May this year, where he said that he intends to achieve the return of funds stolen from the country held in British bank accounts.

The fight against Boko Haram is complicated by the vague and uncertain form and structure of the group itself, as well as the lack of clear information about its size and composition. As the Africanist T. S. Denisova notes, " the surprise of the group's attacks and the rapid retreat after the terrorist attacks prevent the identification of the size of its rank and file and, perhaps, make it believe that it is larger than it really is."²³

Rumors recently circulated in the press about the death of its leader Abubakar Shekau make it doubtful even if Boko Haram has a leadership center, destroying which would be a sure victory over the group. However, Shekau's persona, as some analysts suggest, may have been deliberately relegated to the background, in order to reduce the influence and narrow the autonomy of the group, which has become part of the IS and is now obliged to obey its norms and rules.²⁴

Here it is appropriate to emphasize some features concerning the nature of Boko Haram and IS links. What is known for certain is that Boko Haram has pledged allegiance to the Islamic State, but what is behind these actions raises more questions than it answers, especially given the fact that in October 2015, US military officials said there was no evidence of the group's connection to IS25.

Equally unclear is the state of ties between Boko Haram and Al-Qaeda. Al-Qaeda has never officially identified Boko Haram as a partner. Since the mass abduction in Chibok, Al-Qaeda has not commented on Boko Haram's actions, leading some analysts to conclude that the African group's methods of operation are too harsh even for al-Qaeda. ²⁶ Some researchers have questioned how to treat African Islamist terrorist groups in general and how to respond to them. Boko Haram, in particular. Are these groups locally concentrated adherents of radical Islamic ideology, or are they nodes in an extensive but centrally managed global network of radical Islamism?²⁷

The answer to this difficult question will certainly help to find an effective means of combating the group.

INTERNATIONAL ENGAGEMENT IN THE FIGHT AGAINST BOKO HARAM

The African Union (AU) has repeatedly called on the Nigerian authorities to do everything possible to deal with the internal threat. Security and the fight against terrorism on the continent, in particular Boko Haram, is always one of the most important topics on the agenda of the annual AU ²⁸ summits. The African Union supported the creation of regional armed forces. At the opening of the 24th summit, AU co-leader Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma stressed the need for a"collective and decisive response to terrorists" ²⁹ as their actions pose a threat not only to Nigeria and surrounding countries, but also to the entire African continent.

The joint forces are supported by France. In particular, the French authorities planned to use 3 thousand rubles. military personnel in the region to conduct counter-terrorism operations.

The United States also provides quite active support. So, in September 2015, Washington announced military assistance in the amount of $45 million to Benin, Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria. The United States, along with the United Kingdom and other countries, is involved in training military personnel in West African countries to fight Boko Haram. In October 2015, the United States sent about 300 troops to Cameroon to support the military operation against the militants.³⁰

Israel, Canada, and China also pledged their support. China's assistance, in particular, included the transmission of satellite data and military equipment. In October 2015, Colombia sent a delegation of security experts to assist the Nigerian authorities and share their experience in the fight against terrorism. In January 2016, a Nigerian delegation returned to Colombia to exchange experience.³¹

However, sometimes the provision of military and financial assistance from Western countries is hindered under the pretext of human rights violations in recipient countries. So, in July 2015, after meeting with Barack Obama, Buhari accused him of indirectly supporting Boko Haram, since the United States refused to supply Nigeria with weapons due to systematic human rights violations by the Nigerian military.-

³². Amnesty International, a prominent human rights organization, has accused Nigerian troops of committing war crimes against civilians during ongoing counterterrorism campaigns. The Nigerian authorities deny this information ³³.

POSSIBLE WAYS OUT OF THE CRISIS

Obviously, the days are over when Nigeria could somehow cope with the group without resorting to outside help. The threat of Boko Haram, which has joined the Islamic State, has long gone beyond the borders of Nigeria, ceasing to be its purely internal problem. Almost all countries in the Lake Chad region were hit. Therefore, the worsening crisis can only be overcome through the joint efforts of Nigeria, its neighboring countries, as well as their regional and international partners and allies.

Many world political and military leaders do not believe that the purely military-military approach used by the governments of Nigeria and its neighbors in the fight against Boko Haram can solve the problem. In their view, Governments need to develop a comprehensive strategy to address the economic, cultural and social causes of the crisis.

Back in 2014, Nigeria's National Security Adviser, Mohammed Sambo Dasuki, announced a "soft" approach to dealing with the crisis and its root causes.³⁴ He suggested:

- Establish the Northern Provincial Affairs Commission, or Northern Nigeria Development Ministry; start rebuilding the region's shattered economy; develop agriculture, irrigation systems, power supply, roads; support small businesses that will provide jobs for young people. To finance the above-mentioned projects, it is necessary to fight the theft of oil, which annually costs the treasury $9 billion.;

- implement management reform to effectively combat corruption, which consumes most of the funds allocated to various development programs;

- find and punish the perpetrators of crimes among the military, as well as among politicians and security services. The main condition for a Boko Haram cease - fire is to find and punish those responsible for the 2009 killing of Mohammed Yusuf.Human rights organizations echo this demand. The authorities need to finally give an answer;

- win back the trust of the residents of the north-eastern region. This can be achieved by carrying out military operations professionally and very carefully in order to minimize civilian casualties. Take responsibility for the destruction and compensate and repair the damage in a timely manner.

This approach is still largely relevant today. Both Nigeria and all other countries affected by the Boko Haram crisis need, first of all, socio-political and economic reforms. In addition to the need for reform, the International Crisis Group also suggests identifying and punishing all those, including politicians and law enforcement officials, who incite religious intolerance and/or benefit from the crisis. Form a police force that will be considered by residents themselves as partners in protecting their safety. Develop and implement a joint civic education program to stop the politicization of religion. Promote religious tolerance through educational institutions and the media ³⁵.

Nigeria and neighboring countries need the help of their allies, so they need to build bilateral and multilateral ties with each other, as well as with other States at the regional, continental and global levels, in order to fight the Boko Haram crisis together.

It is also necessary to protect border areas more carefully, to fight not only militants, but also illegal movements of people and drugs at the borders, as well as to counter the illegal proliferation of weapons. Nigeria's international partners and its closest neighbors should support development programs and democratic reforms implemented by local authorities, working with political, religious, and traditional (tribal) elites. Only by joining forces can the Boko Haram crisis be overcome.

THE SITUATION TODAY

Despite the optimistic statements of the Nigerian authorities that Boko Haram has technically been virtually defeated, ³⁶ it continues to pose a serious security threat. At the moment, the militants, having surrendered their positions under the blows of regional forces, hide in the forests and conduct subversive activities, arranging suicide attacks on the territory of Nigeria and its neighboring countries-Niger, Chad and Cameroon.

Having become part of the most powerful terrorist organization to date, the Islamic State, the group is constantly attracting international attention.

Major countries in the Western world express concern about the situation in the region. On the one hand, they certainly provide support to States involved in the conflict with Boko Haram, and on the other hand, they often refuse assistance in connection with human rights violations in recipient countries.

The ranks of Boko Haram continue to be replenished with new supporters, including not only men, but also women and children ³⁷-they are attracted by the "fast" money promised by recruiters ³⁸. The state leaves them no choice, because these people, driven to despair by poverty and hopelessness, have no other opportunities to feed themselves and their families. The threat of Boko Haram will not disappear and will continue to feed from within until the authorities begin to deal with the root cause of the crisis - economic backwardness, until they take measures to eliminate chronic poverty and unemployment, until they reform the education system.

The main slogan of the election campaign of Mohammad Buhari was the changes that Nigeria needs so much. Nigeria is a rich country, the largest economy on the African continent, and one of the leading oil producers. But oil revenues are not distributed in favor of ordinary Nigerians, most of whom continue to live below the poverty line. A similar situation is observed in the neighboring countries of Nigeria.

Until the authorities decide to make changes, the situation will not change. Even if Boko Haram is destroyed, it will be replaced by other radical groups that can continue to find supporters among ordinary people.

^{Denisova T. S.} 1 Nigeria: from Maitatsine to Boko Haram // Vostok / Oriens. 2014. N 4, pp. 70-82. (Denisova T. S. 2014. Nigeria: ot Maitatsine do Boko Haram // Vostok/Oriens. N 4) (in Russian)

^{Blanchard L.P.} 2 Nigeria's Boko Haram: Frequently Asked Questions, Congressional Research Service, March 29, 2016 - https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R43558.pdf

³ Boko Haram pledges allegiance to Islamic State. 7.03.2015 - www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-31784139.

⁴ Conflicts in Africa: causes, genesis and problems of settlement (ethnopolitical and social aspects). Moscow, IAfr RAS Publ., 2013.

^{Denisova T. S.} 5 Decree. Op.

⁶ Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II): The Boko Haram Insurgency, International Crisis Group // Africa Report N 216, 3 April 2014 - www.crisisgroup.org/-/media/Files/africa/west-africa/nigeria/216-curbing-violence-in-nigeria-ii-the-boko-haram-insurgency.pdf, p. 7.

⁷ Ibid., p. 8.

^{8. Geveling L. V.} 8 The UN and prospects for the settlement of socio-political crises in Africa / / African countries and the UN. UN support, the Power of Law. Bulletin No. 12, Moscow, March 2008, p. 46.

⁹ Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II),., p. 13.

¹⁰ Who are Nigeria's Boko Haram Islamists? 4.05.2015 - www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13809501.

¹¹, the UN Security Council declared Boko Haram a terrorist group. 23.05.2014 - http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id= 1609377.

¹² Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II).., p. 22.

¹³ Al-Shabaab militants attacked a hotel in the Somali capital. 25.06.2016 - www.interfax.ru/world/515327

^{Denisova T. S.} 14 Nigeria-2015: Change of leadership / / Asia and Africa Today, 2015, N 8, pp. 12-17. (Denisova T. S. 2015. Nigeria-2015: Smena rukovodstva // Azia i Africa segodnya. N 8) (in Russian)

¹⁵ Will moving army to Maiduguri help Nigeria against Boko Haram. 9.06.2015 - www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33052423.

¹⁶ Boko Haram crisis: Regional force takes shape. 25.02.2015 - www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-31593802.

¹⁷ The Nigerian President is ready to negotiate with Boko Haram. 31.12.2015 - www.bbc.com/russian/news/2015/12/151230_buhari_boko_haram

¹⁸ Boko Haram-terrorists too bloodthirsty even for Al-Qaeda / / INF. 7.06.2016.

¹⁹ The soldiers without enough weapons to fight jihadists. 22.01.2015 - www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30930767

²⁰ Boko Haram crisis...

²¹ Ibidem.

²² The President of Nigeria called on professors to fight corruption. 11.08.2015 - www.bbc.com/russian/rolling_news/2015/08/150810_rn_nigeria_academics_anticorruption

^{Denisova T. S.} 23 Nigeria: ot Maitatsine.., p. 78.

²⁴ "Boko Haram" - terrorists...

²⁵ Ibid.

²⁶ Ibid.

²⁷ Ibid.

²⁸ Assembly of the African Union, 24^th Ordinary Session, 30-31 January 2015. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Decisions, Declarations and Resolutions - summits.au.int/en/sites/default/files/Assembly%20AU%20Dec%20546%20-%20568%20(XXIV)%20_E.pdf

²⁹ Boko Haram crisis: African Union backs regional force of 7,500 troops. 30.01.2015 - www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-31057147

³⁰ The US is sending 300 troops to fight Boko Haram. 14.10.2015 - http://www.bbc.com/russian/news/2015/10/151014_obama_cameroon_troops

³¹ Boko Haram terrorists...

³² Nigeria's Muhammadu Buhari: US 'aided' Boko Haram with arms ban. 23.07.2015 - http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33634607

³³ https://lenta.ru/news/2015/07/23/buhari_nigeria/23.07.2015

³⁴ Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II).., p. 42-44.

³⁵ Ibid., p. 47.

³⁶ Nigeria Boko Haram: Militants "technically defeated" - Buhari. 24.12.2015 - www.bbc.com/news/world-africa35173618

³⁷ Boko Haram crisis: Nigeria arrests "female recruiters". 4.07.2014 - www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28168003.

³⁸ Boko Haram recruits "were promised lots of money". 25.03.2016 - www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35898319

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