The article is devoted to the study of the buildings of the largest Golden Horde city in the North Caucasus, Madzhara. Many of them, mostly mausoleums, were preserved until the end of the XVIII century. The main source for studying the mausoleums of Madjar are drawings and descriptions of researchers and travelers, such as I.-G. Gerber, members of the expedition sent by V. I. Tatishchev, S. G. Gmelin, I. A. Guldenstedt, P. S. Pallas, J. Potocki. The data obtained as a result of excavations in the XX century, did not give such significant results. A detailed analysis of all available sources shows the variety of layouts and architectural forms of Madjar mausoleums, which find analogies in the cult architecture of Iran, Central Asia, Azerbaijan and Asia Minor.

Keywords: Golden Horde, North Caucasus, facade mausoleums, portal mausoleums, tower mausoleums, pyramid mausoleums, Iran, Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Asia Minor.

Introduction

The largest Golden Horde city in the North Caucasus was Madzhar, located on the bank of the Kuma River, at the place where the tributary of the Buffalo flows into it. The area of the ancient settlement reaches 8 km2 [Rtveladze, 1972, p. 159], but it is rather poorly studied. Currently, most of the monument, on the left bank of the modern Kuma riverbed, is built up in Budyonnovsky; the site on the right bank is crossed by a system of irrigation channels, and its cultural layer is largely destroyed by deep plowing during the planting of orchards and vineyards.

Majar was built in the 14th century at the intersection of trade routes connecting the center of the Golden Horde with the Caucasus and the western regions-Azak and the cities of the Crimea. Ibn Battuta, who visited it in 1332, describes Majar as "a large city, one of the best Turkic cities, on a large river, with gardens and abundant fruits" (Tiesenhausen, 1884, p.287). Madzhar is also mentioned in Russian chronicles in connection with the tragic death of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tver in the Horde in 1319. The funeral cortege with the prince's body stopped for the night in Madzhara, where the Orthodox church was located. The Tatar princes did not allow the prince's body to be brought into the church, and it had to be placed in a stable, where at night a glow allegedly appeared over the murdered man [Polnoe sobr...., 1851, pp. 213-215]. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the city fell into disrepair, but the ruins of buildings made of burnt bricks remained until the end of the XVIII century. These magnificent ruins have attracted the attention of numerous explorers and travelers, most of whom have left more or less detailed descriptions of them. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, the ruins of the ancient settlement were visited by I.-G. Gerber, an expedition organized by V. N. Tatishchev, S. G. Gmelin, I. A. Guldenstedt, G.-Yu. Klaproth, I. P. Falk, P. S. Pallas, J. I. Schmidt, S. Gaudet, P. I. Koeppen, J.-S. de Bess, K. G. Koch, A. S. Firkovich, V. F. Miller, and others. In the 40-50s of the XIX century. land surveyor A. P. Arkhipov made an instrumental survey and compiled

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the general plan of the ancient settlement, which, unfortunately, is now lost. The history of the study of the Madzhar ruins has been repeatedly studied [Volkova, 1972; Adzhimamedov, 1992; Daudet, 2008], so it does not make sense to dwell on it in detail. It should only be noted that many descriptions, as well as preserved drawings and drawings, are the most valuable sources for studying the topography of the city and the architectural appearance of its buildings. Moreover, these sources are often much more informative than archaeological sources.

The most productive excavations of the Madzhar settlement were carried out in 1907 by V. A. Gorodtsov, who discovered several houses and a series of burials here, and also drew up a plan of the settlement [1911]. Further studies of Madzhar by G. N. Prozritelev in 1911 and 1925, F. Mametkhanov in 1927, and T. M. Minaeva in 1940 were mainly limited to exploration and collection of lifting material. In the 60s - 70s of the XX century E. V. Rtveladze and A. P. Runich conducted small excavations of Madzhar. They drew up a detailed plan of the ancient settlement, examined the preserved microrelief, stratigraphy of the monument, and collected rich archaeological and numismatic material. Based on archaeological observations of the cultural layer and clothing complex, analysis of written sources, drawings and drawings, numismatics and epigraphy data, E. V. Rtveladze drew conclusions on many issues of the origin, political history, growth, development and death of the city, as well as identified individual components of the multi-ethnic population of Madzhar, studied architecture, craft and trade relations [1972, 1973].

In 1989-1991, an archaeological expedition of the Stavropol Pedagogical Institute headed by A. B. Belinsky and E. D. Zilivinskaya worked on the site. Despite the considerable size of the excavated areas, rather modest results were obtained, since the excavations were conducted within the city limits, where the cultural layer is mostly destroyed. In the 1990s, a team of the Department of Archeology of Moscow State University led by E. D. Zilivinskaya conducted excavations on the right bank of the Kuma River, where part of the trade and craft district, a large building made of mud bricks and the remains of a bathhouse with underground heating were investigated [Zilivinskaya, 1994, 1995, 1996, 2001]. All these works have clearly shown that most of the capital structures of Majar are lost forever, and if we continue to dig, at best we can hope to find insignificant remains of the lower part of the walls or their prints. It is all the more important to carefully analyze the drawings of Madzhar buildings, many of which were preserved in the XVIII century in full, including the roof, and descriptions of these buildings left by eyewitnesses. Some of this work has already been done. So, E. V. Rtveladze considered three types of Madzhar mausoleums depicted in the drawing by A. F. Bushing, confirming his conclusions with the data of S. G. Gmelin, P. S. Pallas, and Ya. Potocki [1973]; another type was identified by L. G. Nechaeva [1978]. However, the researchers were based on the analysis of individual sources, and some of their conclusions are not convincing enough. The presented work is based on a thorough analysis of all known written sources and images of architectural monuments of Majar. For the first time, they are considered in a complex. Separate fragments of the drawing of the panorama of Madzhara of the 40s of the XVIII century, which shows more than 40 buildings, are isolated. For the first time, the layout of these buildings is shown and compared with the drawing. A comprehensive analysis of the available sources allows you to review the entire variety of memorial structures of Majar.

Written and graphic sources

Colonel I.-G. Gerber first drew the attention of the Russian Academy of Sciences to Madzhar in the 1920s of the XVIII century, but he gave only the most general description of the settlement: "In the area where the Kuma River receives the Biruma River... you can see the ruins of a large city with beautiful stone palaces and arches, from which, as well as from the hewn stones lying under the ruins, decorated with pure carved work, you can conclude that in ancient times it was a significant and glorious city." At this time, one could still see "vaulted cellars and ruins of large palaces "(cit. by: [Shestakov, 1884, pp. 5-6]).

The outstanding scientist and statesman V. N. Tatishchev, when he was governor of Astrakhan, not only described the Saltpeter Settlement and other Golden Horde monuments in the Lower Volga region (Yegorov and Yukht, 1986), but also sent a small expedition to study the Madzhar (Palmov, 1925, pp. 209-210; 1928, pp. 334-338). To sketch the ruins, he ordered Mikhail Nekrasov, a student of painting from St. Petersburg "from the Academy of Sciences," and also appealed to the commandant of the Kizlyar Fortress with a request to send "a capable person from the conductors (topographers) to take the place and position on the map, and 30 or 40 people in the convoy." The expedition, which in addition to M. Nekrasov included the draftsman Andrey Golokhvostov and 20 Cossacks, took place in July 1742. Relations between the conductor and the artist did not work out, as the latter rather emotionally wrote in his report to V. N. Tatishchev: "Before reaching Madzhar for 20 versts, and from the road with a verst, you could see the following signs: For Kuma polaty, to which I evo, the conductor,

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If I called, then she did not go with a considerable reproach and did not want to wait for me, according to which I was forced not to call on those flights. And when on the evening of the 31st we arrived at the Madjars ' house, and on August 1 we began to draw the building, then the conductor took the building as an example and began to hurry me to go back, but I told him that it was not possible to properly remove the building in such a short time according to my art, but the conductor not only he put a decent amount of that building on the plan with a measure, but he spoke about it with an expletive: "What's so much to watch?". And in many ways arguing with me, taking the best Cossacks from me, he went at noon, and left me with an osm of thin-skinned people in this place. And although there was not a small number of thieves ' people, as the Cossacks who had stayed with me announced, it was dangerous, yet, although I could not go without correction, I stayed here until the evening; what is possible, I did not make every floor special and prishpekt. At the same time, as if the cellars were visible, then after the conductor took one shovel and an axe and late in the evening it was dangerous to search for more in that place, he went back. And going back to the visible shelves beyond Kuma, Odin was afraid to go to remove them, because even so three people living in the reeds were seen at our crossing, and therefore he was forced, leaving them, to go and catch up with Evo, the conductor. The next day, about 25 versts away, I caught up with him and rode off together, who scolded me in every possible way all the way and tried to whip me. And as soon as the horse was under me, the conductor, having wilfully received the command, forbade the Cossacks not to give me horses during the change from under the Cossacks, but with a great request from one Cossack, having given money, he changed it" (cit. according to: [Palmov, 1928, p. 335-336]). Report A. Golokhvostova is more businesslike and concise: it reports on the completion of the task and drawing up a map, which shows not only the remains of stone buildings on the Kuma River bank, but also their location relative to the Kizlyar Fortress and the fortress of sv. Anna na Donu [Ibid., p. 336]. Currently, the drawing by M. Nekrasov (Fig. 1) and the map compiled by A. Golokhvostov (Fig. 2) are stored in the Manuscripts Department of the Library of the Academy of Sciences (OR BAN. Collection of maps. Op. osn. N 760 and 868).

Based on the drawing by M. Nekrasov, a lithograph was made, which was published by K. Bahr [Bahr, 1839, Tab. 1] (Fig. 3, 1). This image was given by other researchers [Magazin..., 1771, p. 530; Volkova, 1972, p. 44-45; Adzhimamedov, 1992, p.143]. It shows the bank of the Kuma River, where the remains of ca. 45 mausoleums made of baked bricks. On the plan of A. Golokhvostov in the corresponding place, you can count 48 buildings, and their location and layout coincide with the drawing. Nevertheless, these materials were practically not used by researchers when considering the architectural forms of Madzhar mausoleums. Meanwhile, the buildings in the drawing are shown in sufficient detail, with a large number of details. This allows you to analyze their architecture and identify the main types of buildings.

The typology of mausoleums for the majority of Muslim countries is quite well developed [Pugachenkova, 1958, p. 4]. 168 - 179, 185 - 186, 342 - 343; Pugachenkova and Rempel, 1965, pp. 226-227; Brittanitsky, 1966, pp. 96-130, 166-201; Ettinghausen and Grabar, 1994, p. 216 - 222; Hillenbrand, 1994, p. 253-331]. For Central Asia, the most consistent and detailed classification was created by L. Y. Mankovskaya (1979, 1980, 1983). Subsequently, this classification was adopted with minor adjustments by S. G. Khmelnitsky [1996, p. 153]. The features on which all known variants of the memorial structure typology are based are: the number of rooms, the shape of the building, the absence or presence of portals, their shape, and the shape of the cover. Using them, the mausoleums of Majar can be divided into four groups.

Figure 1. Drawing of the ruins of the old town of Madjara, located at the confluence of the Buivoly River with Kuma. By M. Nekrasov, 1742 OR BAN. Collection of maps. Op. osn. N 760.

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2. Plan of the remnants of the city of Majar with the situation. Author A. Golokhvostov, 1742 OR BAN. Collection of maps.

Op. osn. N 868.

3. An engraving from A. F. Bushing's almanac of 1771 (from: [Magazin..., 1771]).

1-reproduction of M. Nekrasov's drawing; 2-pyramid mausoleum in Madzhar; 3-portal mausoleum with a tent covering in Madzhar; 4-facade mausoleum with a tent covering in the Dersovata area.

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The first group (Fig. 4) includes buildings of cubic volume, which turns into an octahedral or twelve-sided drum, topped by a double dome. Each face of the drum has one arrow-shaped window. The windows are both through and blind. The inner hemispherical dome has been preserved in many buildings. On the outside, it had a hipped roof, which can be seen at one mausoleum (Figs. 4, 2). All buildings of this type have on one side a high developed portal, where the entrance is located, framed by a pointed arch and two U-shaped frames lined with bricks and, probably, tiles. According to the form of the portal, two subtypes can be distinguished (Mankovskaya, 1983, p. 32). 4, 1-4, 6), the portal is inscribed in the general prismatic body of the building. 4, 5), it is strongly pushed forward and narrowed relative to the total volume. In the side walls of most buildings, pointed niches are also made, surrounded by U-shaped frames. Some buildings (Figs. 4, 2 - 4) have small windows in these niches, while others (Figs. 4, 5, 6) have through openings. The mausoleums depicted by P. S. Pallas and J. Potocki also had the same structure. Pallas, who visited Madjar twice, in 1780 wrote about six towers and 32 preserved buildings, and in 1793 he found only four undisturbed mausoleums, which he sketched (Figs. 5-7), from the rest there were only bases located along the river in three rows [Pallas, 1799, p. 276 - 284]. The last Majar mausoleum was sketched by Ya. Potocki in 1798 [Potocki, 1829, p. 188].

E. V. Rtveladze, who studied the mausoleums of Madzhar from drawings by A. F. Bushing [Magazin..., 1771, P. 530] and descriptions by S. G. Gmelin, also identifies the type of portal-tent tombs and even gives their approximate dimensions. These are rectangular buildings (10x7 m) with one square room (5x5 m) and a strongly developed portal lying on the continuation of the side walls. The portal niche is covered by a pointed arch and decorated with two U-shaped frames. On the cheek walls of the portal, shallow niches are made, also covered with pointed arches. Similar niches with doors or windows were located in the centers of the three walls of the building, both inside and outside. The walls of mausoleums with a thickness of 1.1-1.2 m are made of Golden Horde bricks of standard format. The exterior of the building was decorated with turquoise-colored tiled bricks.-

4. Portal mausoleums of Majar.

5. Mausoleum in Madzhara on an engraving by P. S. Pallas (from [Pallas, 1799]).

6. Mausoleum in Madzhara on an engraving by P. S. Pallas (from [Pallas, 1799]).

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7. The last surviving mausoleums of Majar (according to [Pallas, 1799]).

8. Mausoleums of Madzhar in the drawing by M. Nekrasov. 1 - facade; 2-tower; 3-complex plan.

They are made of multicolored (turquoise, blue, white, green, red) irrigation elements of various shapes, as well as carved architectural ceramics with turquoise irrigation. Inside, the walls were plastered (Rtveladze, 1973, pp. 271-272).

The next group consists of square buildings that do not have a protruding portal (Fig. 8,1). Its absence can be explained by the poor preservation of buildings, or perhaps these are mausoleums, which E. V. Rtveladze defined as centric, although it would be more correct to call them facade ones, since the facade is allocated only on one side (Mankovskaya, 1983, p. 32; Khmelnitsky, 1996, p. 153), and centric ones have four axial sides. entrances and equivalent facades on all sides. Such a facade mausoleum from a place called Dersovata is shown in the drawing by A. F. Bushing (see Figs. 3, 4). It is square in plan, measuring approximately 7x7 m. There are three-quarter columns at the corners of the building. There is no portal, but the doorway made in one of the walls is decorated with a pointed arch. The mausoleum has a domed ceiling on a high cylindrical drum with eight or twelve rectangular windows. The dome is double, and the inner one is hemispherical, and the outer one is hipped-conical. The total height of the building was approx. 14 m [Rtveladze, 1973, pp. 273-274].

The third group includes tower mausoleums with or without a protruding portal (Figs. 8, 2). M. Nekrasov's drawing and A. Golokhvostov's plan clearly show that these structures can be divided into two subtypes - round and polyhedral in plan. An octahedral tower mausoleum without a protruding portal in the village of Maslov Kut near Madzhar is also depicted by P. S. Pallas [Pallas, 1799, S. 308, Tab. 9). Tower mausoleums, along with portal mausoleums, are described in detail by S. G. Gmelin, who visited Madzhara in 1772: "The shape of the buildings still preserved is quadrangular, octagonal and round. All from 4 to 9 fathoms high, quadrilateral and octagonal end in a pointed pyramid or taper up pyramidally. This pyramid or dome is reached by hidden spiral staircases made in the side walls, which are narrow and no wider than 15 inches. Pyramids or domes are illuminated by openings on the sides like windows. In the roof

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9. Tower mausoleum in the village of Maslov Kut (according to [Pallas, 1799]).

domes with arches. Each house has a high and spacious gallery built of stones with two openings-windows, the door from this gallery leads to the main lower room. The entrance to the gallery is low, with a ledge. And so each structure consists of only one main lower room, gallery, dome or pyramid. The main room is lit by small, rather high-set narrow openings like windows on each side... The construction of round houses is even more different from the current European and Asian architecture. These houses are also from 4 to 9 fathoms high, not large, arched up and rounded, so similar to the Persian and other watchtowers that they might be considered such towers if they did not stand on a level place, and if instead of loopholes they did not have just holes for windows... In the middle of the main room is a circular opening leading to the basement, which is from 3 to 4 feet across, and is closed with a well-fitted stone. This basement is a horizontal corridor, often no longer than a room, but often it goes under the foundation in a straight line just within the courtyard, where there is also a closed entrance to it "(cit. according to: [Shestakov, 1884, p. 8 - 9]). S. G. Gmelin also describes in detail the materials used to build mausoleums: "The bricks are the same as those still made by the Astrakhan Tatars... In some buildings lime and sand are used for masonry, but mostly clay; almost all the rooms are plastered with lime, smoothed and painted from the inside. The foundations are mostly brick, a few made of flagstone, but all very solid. Pine beams... The decorations of the buildings consist of glazed stones of blue, green, red, brick and pearl colors, which are very beautifully and skillfully embedded between the bricks in the inner and outer walls of the lower room, pyramids or domes and galleries in the form of three-or quadrilaterals, rhombuses, crosses, hearts and various fantastic figures. S. G. Gmelin considered all the buildings to be castles of magnates, and the round towers to be shops, i.e. warehouses [Ibid.].

Most modern researchers agree that the quadrangular and octagonal structures described by S. G. Gmelin are mausoleums (Minaeva, 1953, p. 150; Rtveladze, 1973, p. 271-273). E. V. Rtveladze considered them minarets [1973, p. 273]. L. G. Nechaeva defines these structures as "beehive-shaped" mausoleums [1978, p. 88], the appearance of which refers to the pre-Mongol period and connects them with the Polovtsians. She bases her opinion on the information of G. Rubruk, who wrote that the Polovtsians "not only build a large hill over the deceased and erect a statue to him, "but also" build pyramids for the rich, that is, pointed houses, and in some places large towers made of bricks, in some places stone houses... " [1997, p. 101]. L. G. Nechaeva considers the miniatures of the Radziwill Chronicle, where the Polovtsian banner always has a crescent moon, as proof of the muslimization of the Polovtsians in the pre-Mongol period. In her opinion, these miniatures also depict mausoleums in the form of circular buildings covered with domes (Nechaeva, 1978, p. 86).

R. A. Dautov polemics with L. G. Nechaeva. In her opinion, before the 13th century the Polovtsians were probably mostly pagans, and as for the buildings that L. G. Nechaeva writes about, G. Rubruk saw them in 1253, and there is no indication of their connection with Islam anywhere. The miniatures of the Radziwill Chronicle were generally made in the 15th century and may reflect contemporary realities [Dautova, 1983, p. 32-33]. R. A. Dautov also considers the question of the "beehive" mausoleums of Majar. Since there is no archaeological data on round mausoleums, the researcher believes, the structures shown in the drawing are peculiar tombstones, "small in area and deaf inside",

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that is, imitations of large mausoleums. Analogies to these structures are found in the funerary monuments of Central Asia of the XVII-XX centuries. [Ibid.].

The question of the Muslimization of the Polovtsians is beyond the scope of this work, as for the mausoleums depicted in the drawing, then with the opinion of the RA. It's hard for Dautova to agree. First of all, it should be noted that the lack of archaeological data is not a convincing argument. The ancient settlement of Madzhary has been studied quite a bit, and no remains of mausoleums have been found on it at all. By the way, there is probably no hope of finding them, since the territory where, according to A. Golokhvostov's plan, the Madzhar mausoleums were located is built up with city blocks. At the same time, tower mausoleums of the facade type or with a protruding portal are well known. In the plan, they can be either multi-faceted or round. Such mausoleums appear in Iran (Hillenbrand, 1994, p. 4). 282 - 287,528 - 529 and spread to neighboring territories - to Central Asia [Pugachenkova, 1958, p. 292-298; Khmelnitsky, 1996, p. 227-234], Azerbaijan [Usseynov, Brittanitsky, Salamzadeh, 1963, p. 145; Brittanitsky 1966, p. 110-115], Asia Minor (Stierlin, 1998, p. 50; Hillenbrand, 1994, p. 306-308, 541-542). In this context, their presence in the North Caucasus seems absolutely logical.

The interpretation of buildings as "small in area and deaf inside" seems completely incomprehensible [Dautova, 1983, p. 36]. If you carefully read the descriptions of S. G. Gmelin, he, on the contrary, speaks of round "towers" in plan, similar to the watchtowers, 4 - 9 fathoms high (8.52 - 18.11 m), with an inner room. There is also no reason to consider these buildings as minarets, because inside the minarets there should be the remains of spiral staircases, and not empty rooms. In the lower part of the "towers" there were "cellars" with vaults and corridors leading out. That is, according to the description, they fully correspond to mausoleums with underground crypts. By the way, all the tower mausoleums of Azerbaijan certainly have crypts. The presence of underground burial chambers in the Madzhar structures is recorded in the drawings of P. S. Dallas and A. F. Bushing. Finally, it may seem rather strange to see a large number of minarets in a limited area, since they are usually built in mosques. I. A. Guldenstedt, who visited Majar in July 1773, also describes about 50 buildings made of baked bricks at the confluence of Kuma and Buivola, i.e. in the place where they are depicted on the map. plan A. Golokhvostova. He confidently defines these buildings as memorial monuments with underground crypts. Guldenstedt found a mosque with a minaret one verst to the west of them, and a second mosque with a minaret was located even further west [Guldenstadt, 1791, p. 26-27]. This situation he depicted on the plan (Fig. 10).

If you go back to the drawing by M. Nekrasov, you can see another group of buildings (see Figs. 8, 3), which correspond to plans in the form of complex polygonal figures. These can be complexes of several single-chamber mausoleums attached to each other, for example, as in the Shahi-Zinda ensemble (Nemtseva and Shvab, 1979, pp. 17-25). Or they are multi-chamber multifunctional mausoleums, which L. Y. Mankovskaya divides into conglomerates that do not have a clear structure, and mausoleums-complexes of longitudinal-axial or transverse-axial structure [Mankovskaya, 1979, p.97; 1983, p. 40-41]. Examples of such structures include the Qusama Abbas complexes in Shahi-Zinda, Khusam-ata in Fudin, and Mazar Chashma-Ayub in Bukhara [Nemtseva and Shvab, 1979, pp. 17-25; Mankovskaya, 1979; 1983, pp. 40-41; Khmelnitsky, 1996, pp. 255-257].

E. V. Rtveladze identifies another type of Madzhar mausoleums - a pyramid shape. It includes buildings that are octahedral in plan,

Fig. 10. I. A. Guldenstedt's Madzhar plan of 1773 (according to [Guldenstadt, 1791])

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tapering towards the top. On one of the faces was a low portal, slightly pushed forward. The entrance was blocked by a pointed arch, which is highlighted by a U-shaped frame. E. V. Rtveladze gives the approximate size of such a mausoleum. Internal wall spacing approx. 8 m, wall thickness 1 m, portal width 4 m, height 4.5 m. The total height of the mausoleum at these dimensions was more than 12 m (Rtveladze, 1973, p. 273). Such buildings are not visible on the panorama of Madjara, but a fairly accurate drawing of them is given in the publication of A. F. Bushing (see Figs. 3, 2). In addition, S. G. Gmelin writes about narrowing pyramidal structures in the Madzhar itself and about three triangular buildings 10 versts downstream of the Kuma River (see [Shestakov, 1884, p. 8, 11]). Pyramid mausoleums are a rather rare type of funerary monuments, which is not reliably recorded in the Golden Horde settlements. Perhaps they really come from the "pointed houses" mentioned by G. Rubruk. Similar tombstones in Central Kazakhstan were first described and sketched by I. A. Castanier [1910, Figures 50-53]. They were studied by A. Kh. Margulan, who dated them to the 8th-9th centuries and also considered them monuments of the Kipchaks (see [Mendikulov, 1950, p. 7]). Pyramidal mausoleums, common in the VIII-XI centuries in Central Kazakhstan, survive in the Aral-Caspian region to the present day [Azhigali, 2002, pp. 222-223, 226-231]. In the Lower Volga region, on the Krivaya Luka tract, two octahedral mausoleums made of mud bricks were also studied, which most likely had a pyramidal shape (Dvornichenko and Zilivinskaya, 2005; Zilivinskaya, 2009).

Conclusion

The analysis of graphic and written materials makes it possible to distinguish five types of buildings among the mausoleums of Majar.

1. Facade mausoleums, square in construction plan without a clearly defined portal, but with a dedicated side where the entrance is located. They are widely distributed in Central Asia. This type includes the mausoleum of Ishaq-ata's daughter in Fudin near Karshi (XI c.), Mir Seyid Bahrom in Kermin (Mankovskaya, 1979, p. 97, 102), Yarty-gumbez near the Serakhs settlement (XIII c.), Khudai-Nazarov near Bayram Ali (X-XII c.) [Pugachenkova, 1958, p. 286, 310-313], Khalifa Yerehen in Mizdarkhan (IX-X centuries), mausoleum of Fakhraddin Razi in Kunya Urgench, Middle mausoleum in Uzgent [Yakubovsky, 1930, p. 45; Zasypkin, 1948, p. 45]. Almost all of these buildings are covered with single domes, only the mausoleum of Fakhraddin Razi has a tent cover. Square-plan facade mausoleums are also found in Azerbaijan, but this form is not typical for it.

2. Portal mausoleums, which include buildings with a clearly distinguished volume of the entrance portal. They can have a single entrance marked out by a portal, or several entrance openings, one of which is made in a highly developed portal. The presence of several entrance openings is a relic of the centric form of mausoleums, which no longer existed in the Golden Horde period [Khmelnitsky, 1996, p.123]. Portal mausoleums can be divided into two subtypes: with a protruding portal and a portal inscribed in the volume of the building, supported on massive pylons (peshtak).

Memorial buildings with a protruding portal are also typical of the architecture of Central Asia. This is the layout of the Iskhak-ata mausoleums in Fudin (X century) [Mankovskaya, 1979, p. 97 - 102], Astana-baba, Serakhs-baba, Abu-Said, Parauat, Chugundor-baba (all XI-XII centuries), mausoleum No. 3 in the Gekgumbez tract (XIV century) [Pugachenkova, 1958, p. 4. 275 - 276, 278 - 286, 299 - 303, 375], Rukhabad mausoleum in Samarkand (XIV century).

The portal in the form of a peshtak is a kind of" business card " of the architecture of the Middle East. It is also typical for memorial buildings in Central Asia. Examples include the Arab-ata mausoleum in the village of Tim (X century), the southern and northern mausoleums of Uzgent (XII century) [Zasypkin, 1948, p. 78], mazar Zengi-baba (XIII-XIV centuries), mausoleums N 1 and 2 in the Gekgumbez tract (XIII-XIV centuries). [Pugachenkova, 1958, pp. 371-375]. All major mausoleums of the Shahi-Zinda necropolis belong to the same type (Nemtseva and Shvab, 1979). In Transcaucasia and Asia Minor, buildings with peshta-kami are not found.

3. Tower mausoleums, which are divided into two subtypes: round and polygonal in plan. The former are widely distributed in Azerbaijan (Usseynov, Brittanitsky, and Salamzade, 1963, p. 145; Brittanitsky, 1966, p. 110-115, 180-185) and Asia Minor (Stierlin, 1998, p.50; Hillenbrand, 1994, p. 306-308, 541-542). They usually have a hipped dome and no protruding portal. Most likely, all the tower mausoleums of Majar, both round and polygonal, had a tent cover. In Azerbaijan, where the tower form of mausoleums is dominant, there are many examples of such multi-faceted structures with tent domes. These are the mausoleums of Yusuf Ibn Qusayir in Nakhichevan, Momin-khatun (XII c.), Khanega mausoleum, Polistan mausoleum in Jugha village (XII-XIII c.), Dermichler mausoleum (XIV c.), Khachin-Dorbatli (XIV c.), Mir Ali mausoleum (XIV c.), etc. [Usseynov, Brittanitsky, and Salamzadeh, 1963, p. 80-104, 127-162; Brittanitsky, 1966, p. 96-199]. The tower mausoleums of Asia Minor are exclusively covered with tents.-

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they were widely spread there in the Seljuk period. Examples include the Kumbet Dener in Kaizeri (13th century), Karamanoglu Alaeddin Bey mausoleum in Karaman (13th century), Khudavent-khatun-turbe in Nowhere (14th century), and others (Stierlin, 1998, pp. 50-53; Hillenbrand, 1994, pp. 306-311, 540 - 542]). Mausoleums of this type are also known in Iran (Hillenbrand, 1994, pp. 283-286, 527-529). Iran's Gumbede Qaboos Tower, built in 1006, is considered the ancestor of all tower mausoleums.

4. Pyramid mausoleums, polygonal in plan. They represent a rather rare, archaic type of tombstone structures that were common in Ferghana, Semirechye, Central, South-Western, and Western Kazakhstan and are dated in a wide time range-from the early Middle Ages to the beginning of the XX century [Pugachenkova, 1949, pp. 61-67]. Most of these buildings are made of raw wood and pakhsa, but there are also stone ones. The most famous mausoleums are Dengek and Kozu-Korpech in Semirechye, built of flagstone on clay mortar. G. A. Pugachenkova suggested that pyramidal mausoleums originated among nomadic and semi-nomadic Turks (Seljuks), and their shape goes back to mounds and ancient burial mounds [Ibid., pp. 57-77]. One of the types of such structures could be the pyramids on Polovtsian mounds known from the descriptions of G. Rubruk [1997, p. 101]. A. Kh. Margulan, who described the pyramidal tombstones of Central Kazakhstan, dated them to the VIII-IX centuries and considered them monuments of the Kipchaks (see: [Mendikulov, 1950, p. 7]). According to G. A. According to Pugachenkova, the further development of pyramidal structures and their connection with the type of Central Asian brick minaret led to the formation of an architectural image of a tower - like mausoleum with a hipped roof [1949, pp. 69-74]. Similar tombstones are found in Kazakhstan and in modern cemeteries.

5. Multi-chamber mausoleums. They are conglomerates that do not have a clear structure and consist of several buildings attached to each other. Memorial buildings of this type are found in different parts of the Muslim world on large necropolises.

Thus, based on the study of various types of Madzhar mausoleums, we can draw some conclusions about the structure of memorial architecture in the North Caucasus during the Golden Horde period. The Transcaucasian, Kipchak, and Central Asian influences can be clearly traced here, with the latter clearly dominating. The diversity of architectural forms of the Golden Horde mausoleums can be explained by the fact that the North Caucasus has always been a contact zone, a kind of corridor connecting East and West. Here, carriers of various cultures and traditions, including construction ones, intersected and interacted.

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