Introduction

Evidence of purposeful use of fire has recently been found at the Acheulean site of Gesher Benot Yaakov (Goren-Inbar et al., 2004). Given the age of these materials and the geographical location of the monument (between Africa and Europe), we can say that the use of fire was part of the behavioral strategies of hominids during their migration from Africa to Eurasia. This paper provides a systematic review of early evidence for the use of fire and assesses its possible role in human development of new regions in the Middle Pleistocene.

In this article, we present the theoretical foundations and methodology for studying fire traces applied at the parking lot under study. These traces, which date back to the early Middle Pleistocene, include burnt flint products (including small artifacts), pieces of charcoal, charred fruit remains, seeds, and wood [Ibid]. The identification of burnt flints was first based on macro traces generated by heating, and was later confirmed by thermoluminescent measurements [Alperson-Afil, Richter, Goren-Inbar, in press]. In order to determine the causes of burning (whether the origin of fire was natural or anthropogenic), the spatial distribution of burnt and unburned flints was studied.

We proceed from the assumption that the result of natural fires are traces of fire in large areas, while after the fire, which is lit by a person in the hearths, there are spatially structured accumulations of burnt materials, including small objects. This assumption is based on various ethnographic and archaeological observations.

Foci and patterns of spatial distribution of materials. Human actions are spatially ordered, and the tendency of people to focus their activities near hearths is widely documented. The hearth gathers group members around it and serves as a place where social interactions take place, tools are made, food is prepared and consumed, and ritual ceremonies are performed (see, for example, Binford, 1983; Galanidou, 2000; Spurring and Hayden, 1984; Wadley, 2006; Yellen, 1977). Most activities do not leave material traces (for example, social interactions), but, for example, the production of tools and cooking plays a large role in the formation of archaeological sources. Artefact-making, i.e. one of the activities that A. Brooks and J. McCarthy did. Yellen is considered to be the main "waste-producing" type of activity, which is largely tied to hotbeds [Brooks and Yellen, 1987, p. 82].

Foci are not only sites of material accumulation, but also affect the distribution of groups of finds of different sizes. As suggested by L. R. Binford [Binford, 1978, 1983], when people work around the hearth, waste is distributed in space in a certain way. In other words, they often form two concentric zones around the hearth: the zone of dropped items in the immediate vicinity, where small fragments of stone and bone lie in situ (primary waste, if necessary).

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use the terminology of M. B. Schiffer [Schiffer, 1972, 1987]), and the discharge zone where large waste is thrown out (secondary waste according to M. B. Schiffer [Schiffer, 1972]). Thus, in the area adjacent to the source, there is a high probability of detecting a large amount of small waste lying in situ.

The conclusion that small waste remains at its original location, while large waste is often displaced, was made as early as 1961 in a pioneering study by G. Green devoted to the regularities of waste distribution [Green, 1961, p. 91]. Nevertheless, despite the fact that "small detritus, such as stone fragments, small bone fragments, and plant macrofossils, are often found in the primary deposit and are highly likely to be informative" [O'Connell, 1987, p. 104], when analyzing the spatial distribution of materials, the main attention is often paid to large objects. waste management.

There are several reasons for the higher probability of detection of small waste in the primary deposit compared to large ones: small waste is not so noticeable and it is easier to "miss" it during harvesting (see, for example: [DeBoer, 1983; Schiffer, 1987]), their size makes them less dangerous (see, for example, [DeBoer, 1983; Schiffer, 1987]), their size makes them less dangerous (see, for example, [DeBoer, 1983; Schiffer, 1987]).: [Clark, 1991; Hayden and Cannon, 1983]), they are more often trampled and therefore they are pushed deeper into the floor (for a detailed discussion, see: [DeBoer, 1983]).

The pattern that explains the higher probability of detection of small garbage in the primary deposit than large garbage is known as the "McKellar principle" [Schiffer, 1976, p. 188]. J. A. McKellar, working with garbage on the campus of the University of Arizona, found that there is a certain threshold value for the size of garbage, which largely determines the amount of garbage collected in the primary deposit. find out exactly how they are treated next. Garbage larger than 9 cm is usually thrown into bins, and smaller objects are left in place [Ibid; 1987, p. 62; Rathje, 1979, p.10]. J. A. McKellar's conclusion was confirmed by a number of ethnoarchaeological examples (see, for example, [Schiffer, 1987, p. 62; Stevenson, 1991]). However, although it is generally widely accepted, there is no generally accepted definition of a size threshold. In other words, it is not clear what should be considered small. As an extreme variant, such particles can be considered smaller than 1 mm (K. R. Fladmark (1982) called them microdebitation, meaning only stone processing waste). Microscopically, microdebitages can be divided into micro-splinters and micro-splinters (Vance, 1987). It was suggested that the threshold value should be 2 mm , which is the maximum value of microartefacts according to Stein (Dunnell and Stein, 1989; Stein and Teltser, 1989), which meant any archaeological remains of the appropriate size by microartefacts. It was shown that it is important to take such microartifacts into account when studying both natural (see Dunnel and Stein, 1989) and cultural (for example, the production of stone artefacts [Hull, 1987]; Simms, 1988]) processes of layer formation. There have been suggestions to define the threshold as 2.5 mm (Metcalfe and Heath, 1990), 6 mm (Austin et al., 1999), 10 mm (Nadel, 2001), 25 mm (DeBoer, 1983), or 50 mm (O'Connell, 1987). Nevertheless, despite such discrepancies, many researchers share the view of small objects as an important component of monument structure reconstruction and a good indicator of working sites [Cessford, 2003, p. 3; Hayden and Cannon, 1983, p. 134; Schiffer, 1987, p. 94; Simms, 1988, p. 208].

Ethnographic observations provide the basis for reconstructing the structure of the monument. This reconstruction is based on the realization that the relationship between foci and the distribution of finds can determine the context of artefact accumulations (Simek, 1984). Therefore, when trying to reconstruct the process of formation of spatial configurations associated with foci, we can be guided by the following provisions::

1) various actions were performed near the hearths;

2) hotbeds were centers around which garbage accumulated;

3) small waste was more often left in place than large waste;

4) probably, small waste accumulations are associated with the foci.

Archaeological evidence for this has been recorded in various Middle Paleolithic sites (Vaquero and Pasto, 2001). For example, in open-air parking lots (see, for example: [Goring-Morris, 1988; Hietala, 1983], as well as Goring-Morris A. N. Prehistoric Investigations in the Western Negev. Part 1: The Shunera Dunes, Givat Hayil, Nahal Sekher and Hamifgash (in prep.)), in grottoes and caves (see e.g. [Galanidou, 1997; Vaquero and Pasto, 2001]). On all these monuments, the hearths are easily identifiable.

Ghost hearths. Hearths found on archaeological sites are often distinguished by their color, depth, size, contours, and the presence of stones used in the construction. In addition, they are associated with sites of accumulation of waste products, especially small ones, as hubs for various activities. All this is obvious when we study monuments with well-preserved hearths. In the parking lot under consideration, we are dealing with ghost foci with no pronounced signs. The approach to the study of archaeological sites of this kind was proposed by A. Leroy-Guran in the concept of LA-

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tent structures. They can be identified by analyzing the spatial distribution of artifacts (Leroi-Gourhan and Brezillon, 1972). Based on the above, we can assume that the indicators of foci are accumulations of waste, especially small, burnt ones. The location of foci should be found in the center of such clusters. In Belvedere (the Netherlands), the concentration of burnt artefacts indicated the presence of a focus in the middle of the cluster (Stapert, 1990). Spatial analysis of flint microartefacts from Gesher Benot Yaakov allowed us to determine the localization of small burnt objects interpreted as the remains of foci.

Materials by Gesher Benot Yaakov

The Acheulean site of Gesher Benot Yaakov, dated to 790 thousand years AGO, is located on the banks of the Hula Paleozoic in the Levantine Corridor (Figure 1). The studied area contains a 34 m thick sediment layer. These sediments, which document paleozoic fluctuations, are believed to reflect global climate changes during oxygen-isotope stages 18-20 (Feibel, 2001, 2004), covering a period of approx. 100 thousand years. Thirteen archaeological horizons represented in this stratum indicate that the lake shores were repeatedly inhabited by hominids (Goren-Inbar et al., 2000). Various materials show that the Acheulean inhabitants of the site hunted, butchered meat, extracted bone marrow, extracted and transported various types of stone raw materials, skillfully made stone tools, and also collected a variety of plants, including seven species of walnut, which were preserved on the monument due to wetlands [Goren-Inbar et al., 1994, 2002; GorenInbar and Saragusti, 1996; Goren-Inbar, Werker, and Feibel, 2002].

Burnt flint is found in all excavated archaeological horizons. This paper presents the results of studying the spatial distribution of burnt flints in two archaeological layers (V-5 and V-6) of excavation C (see Figure 1). They are located approximately 13 m above the Matuyama-Brunes boundary (Goren-Inbar et al., 2000) and are dated to the oxygen-isotope stage 18 (Ibid.). These layers are represented by two types of deposits: coarse - grained (shell rock) in layer V-5 and fine-grained (clay) in layer V-6. The transition from one type to another corresponds to a change in the lake level [Ibid; Feibel, 2004]. Layers V-5 (excavated volume of 2.25 m3) and V-6 (excavated volume of 1.39 m3) contain a collection of flint finds that are quantitatively quite sufficient for statistical analysis (Table 1).

Methodology

The excavation technique used during the work on the monument was aimed at opening the habitat horizons inclined by tectonic processes along their extent and depth in order to obtain an optimal picture of the spatial organization of each layer - the "living surface". Exposed horizons were sketched, and finds larger than 2 cm were recorded in a three-dimensional coordinate system (X, Y, and Z). The spatial position of the remaining finds was recorded more generally, using squares with an area of 50 cm2 and a thickness of 5 cm. In the course of field studies, the host sediments of both layers were completely washed, and the materials of the sample were completely washed out.-

Figure 1. Layout of the Gesher Benot Yaakov site and excavations.

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Table 1. The ratio of stone artifacts and microartifacts from different raw materials in excavation C, pcs.

Layer

Artifacts

Microartifacts

Burnt Flint

Unburned flint

Basalt and limestone

Burnt Flint

Unburned flint

Basalt and limestone

V-5

1

312

86

550

30 058

5 885

V-6

3

176

66

82

4415

2 078

Fig. 2. Flint microarfacts detected during the washing of deposits; each plastic bag contains materials for washing deposits from one site (A); flint microarfacts from deposits from one site, the ratio of burnt (left) and unburned (right) things is shown (B).

3. Flint microartefacts from the excavation: A-D-fired, from the V-5 layer; D-3-unburned, from the V-5 layer; I-M-fired, from the V-6 layer; H-R-unburned, from the V-6 layer.

washes are provided with data about their spatial reference and packed.

Washing the sediments of layers V-5 and V-6 yielded rich and diverse materials (bones and teeth of small mammals, fish and crabs, fruits, grains, and charcoal particles). Thanks to this procedure, it was possible to find many small stone objects, including from 2 to 20 mm in size (hereinafter referred to as microartefacts) made of basalt, flint and limestone (Figure 2).

Burnt flints (artefacts and microartefacts) were identified during field studies and subsequent analysis of collections. Their identification was based on the presence of typical macrocracks that appear when flint is exposed to temperatures of the order of 350-500 °C (Figure 3) (Purdy, 1975, 1982; Purdy and Brooks, 1971). Thermoluminescence analysis confirmed these observations and showed that heating of similarly damaged objects took place in the following conditions:

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Figure 4. Stages of constructing density maps (on the example of a complex of unburned silicon microartefacts from the V-5 layer). A - map of a point distribution; B-map of densities; C-standardized map of densities; D - standardized map of densities, where densities are represented as three-dimensional surfaces.

antiquities [Alperson-Afil, Richter, Goren-Inbar, in press]. The main part of the burnt flints is represented by microartefacts (see Table 1). The separation of natural objects, such as small pebbles, from the cleavage products was carried out on the basis of the presence of such elements characteristic of cleavage as the ventral surface, impact pad, etc.

How could burnt materials have been found in the archaeological layers? We consider two possible scenarios:: 1) there were natural fires on the banks of the Paleoozero River. In this case, we should have found a large number of burnt objects scattered throughout the excavated area; 2) hominids were engaged in splitting stone near the hearths. In these places, it is assumed that accumulations of small waste, completely or partially exposed to fire, will appear. In this case, we should find a relatively small number of burnt items that are closely concentrated in certain areas.

Since the burnt botanical finds could not serve as a spatial indicator due to their small specific weight and proximity to water, the planigraphic analysis covered only flint microartefacts. It was designed to determine the nature of the distribution of burnt items - structured or random.

Most microartifacts are planigraphically linked to squares with an area of 50 cm2, so when mapping them, it was necessary to assign each item a randomly selected point in the corresponding square (using Visual Basic). Previously, this procedure, in which the generalized square-by-square binding of excavated materials is converted to a point-by-point one, has already yielded realistic spatial configurations [Gilead, 2002]. Using the Arc GIS 8.2 application included in the GIS package, flint microartefacts were given a point reference and their distribution maps were constructed (Figure 4, A). Due to the large number of microartefacts, it was impossible to identify areas of increased density on these maps, so they were converted to density maps (Figure 4, B). To get the results, we used the following methods: at a general scale (from 0 to 1), which would allow comparing different groups of data (burnt and unburned microartefacts), densities were standardized by the maximum value for each group (Figure 4, C). Finally, in order to clearly distinguish high-density areas, density maps were converted to a three-dimensional image, where densities are represented as three-dimensional surfaces (Fig. 4, D).

Results

A large number of microartifacts were found in both layers. However, the proportion of burnt objects among them is small; it does not exceed 2 % of the total number of flints in each layer (see Table 1).

The plan showing the density of finds shows that unburned flint microartefacts from the V-5 layer are localized in the south-eastern part of the layer surface. The burnt microartefacts form two clusters, one of which is also on the surface of the-

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5. Three-dimensional image of the relative densities of flint microartefacts in excavation C (20 m 2). A-layer V-5, unburned; B-layer V-5, unburned; C-layer V-6, unburned; D-layer V-6, unburned. Relative densities were standardized by maximum values for each data group.

one goes to the southeast, and the other goes to the northwest. Together, these two clusters contain more than 50 % of all annealed microarfacts found in the layer (Figs. 5, A, B). In layer V-6, a cluster of unburned flint microarfacts stretches from the center of the excavation to its northwestern part. More than 60 % of the burnt microartefacts in this layer belong to two clusters located in the center of the excavated area (Fig. 5, B, D).

It is established that the fired and unburned flint microartefacts are not distributed equally in space, and the areas of their distribution overlap only partially. Moreover, there are more burnt flint microartefacts in the clusters where they are represented than unburned ones, although the total number of the latter on the monument is much higher. This type of concentration of the findings indicates that the fire was only in some areas and post-deposition processes (caused, for example, by the action of waves or water flow) had only a limited impact on the initial distribution of microartefacts. Based on these data, it can be assumed that clusters of burnt microartefacts indicate the location of angelic foci.

Nature of the origin of the fire at the Gesher Benot Yaakov site

The identification of burnt flint microartefacts indicates the use of fire in the parking lot. As mentioned above, the appearance of burnt material on the monument could be the result of either natural fires or purposeful use of fire by humans.

We considered three types of natural fires - peat, volcanic, and surface fires. The first two can be excluded. Although burnt objects are found in all Angel horizons, peat is present in only one thin layer, much lower than layers V-5 and V-6, and evidence of volcanic activity in the studied sediment column is completely absent. It is most likely that a surface fire occurred in this area due to natural spontaneous combustion (Kimmins, 1997, p. 297).

Lightning is the main cause of natural fires in the Mediterranean zone (Whelan, 1995). Today, lightning strikes are most frequent in the Hula Valley area between October and March (according to the Israel Meteorological Service), although they rarely cause fires during this rainy season [Ibid, p. 26]. Wood remains of Mediterranean tree species identified at the site (Goren-Inbar, Werker, and Feibel, 2002), together with other paleobiological materials (remains of mollusks, crabs, fish, and mammals), indicate that seasonal climate changes in the Hula Valley during the formation of sediments were close to modern. In natural fires, the highest temperatures occur at the level of grass cover, where they can reach 550 °C (Whelan, 1995), which is sufficient to damage flint. If the presence of burnt organic and inorganic materials on the monument is the result of such fires, then the proportion of finds with traces of fire exposure should be high. However, among all collected during the excavation process

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burnt objects account for less than 2 % of flints and wood fragments (charcoal: [Goren-Inbaretal., 2004]; wood: [Goren-Inbar, Werker, Feibel. 2002]). Moreover, a large amount of unburned wood was found in the layers of the parking lot; most likely, it is driftwood [Ibid] - an excellent fuel that would help spread any naturally occurring fire. Another explanation is an underground fire (for example, burning roots and stumps). However, the maximum temperature generated by fire at a depth of 2.5 cm from the surface does not exceed 100 °C [Whelan, 1995, p. 16], i.e. it cannot cause damage to the surface of flint artifacts.

The small number of burnt objects, their occurrence in clusters, as well as the localization of such clusters at two different levels of habitat make us look for a different explanation for the origin of such objects than a natural fire. Most likely, their appearance was the result of the activity of hominids. Based on extensive ethnographic data, we consider accumulations of burnt flint microartefacts as evidence of the existence of foci.

Thus, we can conclude that the angelic hominids who visited the shores of the Hula Paleoozer for thousands of years knew how to use fire, and repeatedly applied this knowledge in practice. In addition, the materials of Gesher Benot Yaakov suggest that the activity associated with hotbeds may be more ancient than is commonly believed.

Discussion

The study of burnt flint microartefacts from Gesher Benot Yaakov made it possible to establish the date of purposeful use of fire on this monument - 790 thousand years ago. However, the question of when man first mastered fire remains open. Determining this point in time is one of the most important tasks facing archaeology. A review of the archaeological data shows that the early materials are fragmentary and contradictory. As emphasized by R. Dennell (1989) and W. McGrew (1989) in the comments to the work of S. A. Shishkin. James (1989) described the oldest possible traces of fire use, and this type of evidence can be both direct and indirect, so caution should be exercised when using criteria of varying significance. However, in our opinion, given the antiquity and diversity of some materials, to identify early traces of fire use and determine their age, it is necessary to use a wide range of criteria, especially since "if only the presence of indisputable foci is taken as evidence, then the mastery of fire should be dated no earlier than 200 thousand years ago. on African, West Asian, and European cave sites "[Klein, 2000, p. 23-24].

Excavations of Pleistocene sites have revealed various traces of fire. The following is an overview of data on fire use in the pre-Middle Paleolithic period. We will look at the materials in chronological and geographical order to trace when this technological skill emerged and spread, which may have been either a consequence or a driving force of human migration from Africa to Eurasia.

African materials

Large-scale excavations of Lower Pleistocene sites were carried out in Koobi Fora (Kenya). Several archaeological sites have been found in muddy floodplain deposits dating back to about 1.5 million years AGO (Isaac and Harris, 1978). On one of them, FxJj 20-East, two points were identified, where, as reported, there are traces of fire. Four areas of presumably burnt silty-sandy sediments are noted here. The sediments in three sites had a slight reddish-orange tint interspersed with more severe reddening, and in the fourth - intense gray-black color, partially calcified (Clark and Harris, 1985). Samples taken from these sites turned out to be thermally demagnetized, which clearly indicates that they were heated by fire to a temperature of 200 to 400 °C [Ibid]. In addition, according to the results of thermoluminescence analysis, reddish deposits experienced heating later than the surrounding tuffs [Rowlett, 2000, p. 200], and analysis of phytoliths originating from the same sites showed their heterogeneity. Therefore, we can assume that in this case we are dealing with a bonfire, and not with a burnt stump [Ibid.; Rowlett, Davis, Graber, 1999].

Some stone artefacts from FxJj 20-East were transformed by the thermal impact. These are black or reddish-orange objects that are supposed to have changed their color due to exposure to fire (Clark and Harris, 1985). Basalt and slate artefacts were found on some of the mentioned bonfires. Some of these objects, as shown by thermoluminescence analysis, were heated simultaneously with the bonfires (Rowlett, 2000). Interestingly, the highest concentration of stones and bones occurs in areas directly adjacent to calcined sediment spots [Ibid].

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During the excavation of the FxJj 20-Main site, two sites were identified that were subjected to oxidation. One of them is the remains of an ancient fire pit. Both sites contained fully oxidized deposits with a thickness of at least 5 cm and showed magnetic susceptibility typical of bonfires (Bellomo, 1994a). Traces of thermal activity were found on three of the 335 stone artefacts located near these sites (Bellomo, 19946).

Traces of fire were also recorded at the Chesowanya site (Kenya) at GnJi 1 / 6E under a basalt layer dated to 1.4 ± 0.07 Ma (Gowlett et al., 1981). The traces are represented by 40 fragments of baked clay of various sizes: from small crumbs to lumps of 5-7 cm in size [Ibid]. They were all mixed up with Olduvai tools and animal bones. The results of measuring the magnetic susceptibility led to the conclusion that these samples were heated to 400 °C and that" the Chesovany clay was burned in a small controlled fire " [Ibid, p. 128]. J. D. Clark and J. W. Harris [Clark and Harris, 1985] describe 51 fragments of reddish-brown clay that were found in the Chesovany region. clays from this monument; the largest of them were concentrated on a plot of 3 m2.

Traces of possible burning have also been identified at the Gadeb site (Ethiopia). This monument is associated with a series of lacustrine and flow-lacustrine deposits of Pliopleistocene age. The archaeological finds found here date from 1.5 to 0.7 million years ago [Ibid]. Traces of fire in the form of weathered angular tuff fragments of dark gray and red color were found at the Acheulean point of Gadebaye. These presumably burnt objects were located singly, but a group of four fragments was found in one area of 1 m 2 [Ibid]. Ten fragments were subjected to paleomagnetic analysis, and thermal magnetization was determined for all of them (Barbetti, 1986).

Excavations in Middle Awash (Ethiopia) have led to the discovery of several archaeological sites dating from 2 to 0.5 million years ago. Some of them show traces of fire. A section of reddish clay deposits forming a cone with a diameter of 80 to 40 cm was identified near the Olduvai BOD-A4 and Angelsky HAR-A3 localities (Clark and Harris, 1985). Paleomagnetic analysis of the clay samples taken from here allowed us to conclude that they were fired at a temperature of at least 600 °C (Barbetti, 1986). The available data, however, are not sufficient to determine whether we are dealing here with bonfires. It is interesting to note that although stone artefacts and bones were found nearby, no such object was found in direct connection with the burnt deposits. This is one of the arguments in favor of interpreting burnt deposits as the result of burning tree stumps, and burnt clay-as the remains of termite that was on the stump and burned with it [Clark et al., 1984; Clark and Harris, 1985].

A hearth-like formation was recorded during excavations at the Acheulean site of Olorgessal (Kenya). The "hearth" was a hollow filled with rocks and bones, but no charcoal was found in it (Isaac, 1977). Microscopic fragments of the latter were revealed during the search for pollen grains. However, it remains unclear whether they were created as a result of human activity or natural fires [Ibid].

Excavations in the South African cave Svartkrans revealed a sequence of layers of the early Stone Age. A group of blackened bones was recorded in Acheulean layer 3, dating from 1.0 - 1.5 Ma BP (Brain and Sillen, 1988). Comparing them with the bones burned during the experiment, suggested that the bones from the deposits in the cave were deliberately exposed to fire at a temperature of 300-500 °C. This may be related to cooking (frying) meat (see: [Ibid], and Skinner A., Lloyd J., Brain C., Thackeray F. Electron spin resonance and the first use of fire. Paper presented at the Paleoanthropology society annual meeting. - Montreal, Canada, 2004).

Various burnt materials of plant origin, such as charred trunks, charcoal, and carbonized grass stems, have been found in the Acheulean wetland in Kalambo Falls, Zambia. In addition, wooden tools were found here, presumably hardened in fire [James, 1989], and pieces of quartzite cracked under the influence of fire [Clark and Harris, 1985].

A long sequence of calcined deposits was uncovered in the South African Hearth Cave. Clearing of the "basal focus" in the third Acheulean horizon exposed ash deposits that transformed into a breccia with a thickness of more than 1.3 m. The bone fragments found in the breccia were interpreted as follows: "animal bones were apparently chewed or broken into small pieces and thrown into the fire" (Mason, 1969, p. 159). In addition, it is reported that on the surface of two cuttings from this site there are pits formed under the influence of fire (Oakley, 1954). Based on the analysis of a number of samples taken from the basal focus, K. Oakley concluded that, unlike other foci, the basal one was devoid of free carbon. Therefore, these deposits are not wood ash, but bat droppings (guano), which could have been used as fuel [Ibid].

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Levantine materials

Materials from Middle Paleolithic sites in the Levant have been the subject of several fundamental sedimentological studies devoted to the identification of burnt deposits, ash, and hearths (Albertetal., 1999,2000,2003; Weiner, Goldberg, and Bar-Yosef, 2002). For Lower Paleolithic sites, there are no examples of such analysis, and the evidence of fire found here is mainly considered to be charred stones and bones.

At the 1.4-million-year-old Ubeidiya monument in Acheul, Israel, traces of fire are recorded on several flint artefacts. Here, 31 burnt flint artefacts were found in 14 different horizons (Bar-Yosef and Goren-Inbar, 1993). However, "such scanty data do not allow us to speculate on whether the hominids of Ubeidia could have used fire" [Ibid, p. 191].

In the Acheulean layers of Latamna (Syria), there are accumulations of limestone blocks, as well as angular pieces of limestone and flint rubble. As the study of the geological situation in the area of the monument showed, these materials could not have got there naturally (Clark, 1966). Under the influence of the work of M. Stekelis, which describes burnt bones from Gesher Benot Yaakov (Stekelis, 1960), JD. Clark suggested that "the rubble accumulation in Latamna could have been used in the construction of stone stoves for cooking meat and vegetable food" (Clark, 1966, p. 219). Some of the limestone blocks had cracks, as well as reddened and discolored areas, similar to those that are obtained under the influence of fire. One sample of limestone rubble was examined by K. Oakley, but tests for thermal changes gave negative results (Clark, 1968).

During the excavation of the Bizat Ruham site (Israel) possible accumulation of burnt bones was detected. Although faunal remains were found in different places of the settlement, the bones differed in color and degree of preservation, but they were fragile and whitish only in one area. This circumstance, along with the presence of a few fragments of charcoal in the same place, indicates that the latter were burned (Ronen et al., 1998). Paleomagnetic analysis of the sediments indicates that the Bizat Rukhama cultural layer may be about 0.85-0.99 Ma old (Laukhin et al., 2001). During the renewed excavations of the monument, no burnt bones, as well as other traces of fire, were found (I. Seidner, oral report).

Excavations in the Tabun cave (Israel) revealed a thick layer of cultural layers of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. The oldest evidence for the use of fire belongs to the Acheulean-Yabrudian horizons (Ea-d), which are 0.35-0.3 Ma old according to TL dates from burnt flints (Mercier et al., 1995); a slightly older age, about 0.39 Ma, was recently postulated by U Rincom on the basis of combined EPR- and uranium dating [Rink et al., 2004]. The results of thermoluminescence dating are the only indication of the presence of calcined stones in the Acheulean Herd complexes. However, during excavations in the Acheulean strata, slightly colored bonfires were also found, but clearly different from the surrounding deposits. Campfires in layer E were distinguished by their dark brown or yellow color (Garrod and Bate, 1937). Some of them were particularly noticeable. "Throughout layer E, there were more or less extensive areas of whitish crumbling soil with strongly calcified flint, which presumably correspond to places where particularly strong fires burned" (Ibid., 1937, p. 66).

The Acheulean-Yabrudian layers recently discovered in the Kezem cave were dated from uranium isotopes of about 0.38-0.20 Ma (Barkai et al., 2003; Gopher et al., 2005). Traces of fire here include burnt bones, rocks, and soil and are found in sediments over a length of 7.5 m (see [Gopher et al., 2005], as well as Stiner M. C., Barkai R., and Gopher A. The Acheulo-Yabradian faunas from Qesem Cave (Israel): Preliminary results. 69th Annual Meeting of the Paleoanthropology Society and Society for American Archaeology. March 30-April 4, Montreal). Recent excavations have revealed that the upper part of the cave layers is mainly ash (Barkai River, oral report).

There are no reports of burnt flints on other Lower Paleolithic sites in the Levant. However, the image of a flake with traces of thermal impact accompanies the description of the Teiyak complex of EZ from Umm Katafa in Israel in the book by R. Neuville (1951, fig. 13). Burnt flints, mostly small, are present at the location in the Revadim quarry in Israel (personal observations of the authors), dating back 0.3 million years AGO (Marderetal., 1998).

Asian materials

On Zhoukoudian (China), finds were discovered that were long considered the oldest evidence of the use of fire. Particular importance is attached to point 1: the Peking man remains identified here and related archaeological materials are associated presumably with dark ash deposits that date back to 0.6 years.-

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0.3 million years ago (Goldberg et al., 2001). These early traces of fire, especially the accumulation of ash (4-6 m) in layer 4 and the "hearth" in layer 10, were widely discussed and for a long time considered as the remains of hearths built and used by humans (see, for example, [Breuil, 1932; Oakley, 1956, 1961; Stewart, 1956; Goldberg et al., 2001, p. 518-520]). Based on the results of thermoluminescent analysis of cracked stone chocks and burnt carcass seeds (Celtis) from point 1, it was concluded: "somewhere and at some time they clearly experienced the effect of fire" [Rowlett, 2000, p. 207]. In addition, when the Zhoukoudian sediments were dated using the thermoluminescence method, it was found that the thermoluminescence value was lower for layer 10, in which burnt objects were found, than for sediments from layers that did not contain such things (Rowlett, 2000). However, the results of a recent mineralogical analysis of Zhoukoudian deposits indicate that the data related to the monument cannot be interpreted unambiguously. According to the results of this analysis, any thick ash accumulations or even just ash residues are not represented here [Goldberg et al., 2001; Weiner et al., 1998]. According to R. Goldberg and co-authors (Goldberg et al., 2001), the" hearth " of layer 10 actually consists of thin-layered unburned organic materials interspersed with silt, and layer 4 is composed mainly of layered loess silts deposited by water in a depression. In the course of a renewed study of the "ash" deposits, burnt bones in combination with stone artifacts were found only in the upper part of layer 10. Thus, they represent "possible, but not absolute evidence of the use of fire by the inhabitants of point 1" [Ibid, p. 520]. According to some experts, these bones are black or turquoise in color "somehow burned as a result of natural phenomena" [Weiner et al., 1998, p. 252].

Burnt wood remains were found at the Trinil locality (Java), whose age, based on potassium-argon dating, was first determined to be in the range of 0.5 - 0.8 Ma, and later -1.2 Ma [James, 1989]. K. Oakley believed that these remains were the result of natural fires [Oakley, 1956, p.40].

The Xihoudu locality in China is represented by numerous faunal remains and ca. 30 stone artifacts. Some of the bones were black, gray, or grayish-green in color; based on laboratory analysis, they are considered burnt (James, 1989). Faunal remains are assumed to be about 1.0 million years old, while paleomagnetic studies indicate a date of 1.8 million years ago (Pope, 1983).

A Homo erectus skull and 20 stone tools were found in Gongwangling, China (James, 1989). According to the results of magnetochronological studies, the age of the monument is estimated to be 1.2 million years (Hyodo et al., 2002). The presence of a few crumbs of charcoal indicates burning (James, 1989).

Two incisors of Homo erectus, as well as faunal materials and stone artefacts were found in Yuanmou (China) [Ibid]. Evidence for the use of fire is provided by two dark-colored mammalian bones and a significant amount of charcoal [Ibid]. According to the results of recent magnetochronological studies, the finds date back to 0.7 million years AGO (Hyodo et al., 2002). Pope also notes the presence of traces of fire at the Lantian site (China), which is about 0.78 million years old (Pope, 1983). However, the nature of these traces is not reported in the publication.

European materials

Fragmentary and controversial traces of fire are recorded on some European monuments. F. K. Howell (1966) noted several possibly burnt flints at the site of Montier (France). Here, in the Pleistocene terraced deposits of the Somme, several processed stones were found that had "a porcelain-like surface, as if they had been exposed to fire" (Ibid., p. 91). The possibility of using fire on the English monuments of Swanscombe, Hoxne and Marks Tay is indicated by the presence of pieces of charcoal in the sediments, as well as changes in the frequency of pollen of different breeds. Clumps of carbonized plant matter were found in Swanscombe, dating from 0.3 million years AGO. Oakley described them as charcoal from "bonfires burned on the banks of the river by Acheulean hunters" (Oakley, 1956, p. 41). A palynological study of the Hoxnay and Marks Tay deposits has shown that the Acheulean layer is characterized by a decrease in the amount of tree pollen and an increase in the amount of grass pollen. Taking into account the absence of a link between shifts in vegetation and climate change, and the presence of a piece of charcoal in Hoxna, it was suggested that hominids caused forest fires for hunting purposes (James, 1989).

A constant problem that arises when discussing the oldest European monuments is related to the difficulty of determining whether the origin of early "pebble stones" is anthropogenic or natural (see, for example, [Roebroeks and Kolfschoten, 19956]).

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This applies, in particular, to the Blassac - le-Battan locality (France), where faunal remains dating back to the period of 1.2-1.4 Ma were found together with objects from crystalline rocks (Raynal, Magoga, and Bindon, 1995). Although some of the latter bear obvious traces of thermal cracking, in general, the entire complex is most likely of natural origin [Ibid]. A similar situation is observed at the location of Przezletice (Czech Republic). Here, burnt bones, charcoal, and fire pit remains were reportedly found in Pleistocene deposits dating from 0.59-0.89 Ma based on paleomagnetic analysis (Valoch, 1995). However, the signs of artificial splitting on the stone artefacts from Przezletice are very indistinct, and, according to some researchers, human involvement in their origin has not been proven [Roebroeks and Kolfschoten, 19956].

A similar problem arises in the analysis of materials from the Sandalja I Cave (Croatia), where charcoal and burnt bones are associated with Early Pleistocene breccia (Valoch, 1995). Together with these finds, only two stone objects were found (untreated pebbles and a flint chopper), which does not allow for an unambiguous interpretation of this location [Ibid]. K. Valoch also reports burnt bones from Stransk Skala I (Czech Republic). These bones were found in the Middle Pleistocene archaeological horizon. Judging by the results of chemical analysis, they were indeed exposed to fire at a temperature of about 200-500 °C [Ibid].

Renewed archaeological investigations at Beach Pit in Suffolk, England, have revealed various traces of burning. An age determination of 0.4 Ma was made for the charred materials based on TL dates [Gowlett et al., in press]. Burnt flints and two localized calcination zones containing charred materials and most likely representing the remains of foci were found.

At the Schoeningen locality (Germany), which dates back to 0.4 million years AGO and is known for wooden copies, both burnt flints and hearths were also found (Thieme, 1997 and G. Thime's personal report).

Numerous evidences of the use of fire in Vertesseles (Hungary) are described. The remains of two hominids (Homo erectus and sapiens palaeohungaricus [Thoma, 1990]), as well as their footprints, were found on the ancient habitat surface, along with bonfires, stone artifacts, faunal and botanical remains [Kretzoi and Dobosi, 1990].

The Verteshselesh date, determined on the basis of thorium-uranium analysis of travertine deposits, is -0.35 Ma, and on the basis of EPR dating-about 0.33 Ma (Pecsi, 1990). All the hearths contained fragments of burnt bones, but there was no charcoal in them. Interestingly, the burnt bones formed circles that bordered the central part of the foci (Vertes and Dobosi, 1990). The presence of burnt bone fragments in the foci and the absence of charcoal in them suggested that the bones were used as fuel [Ibid].

The same interpretation was proposed for the burnt bones from La Cote de Saint Brelade on Jersey Island. The monument, dated to 0.38-0.2 million years AGO (Huxtable, 1986), contained various evidences of the use of fire. Traces of burning are recorded in all cultural layers and include charcoal, burnt bones, flint artefacts, and granite (Callow, Walton, and Shell, 1986). In addition, there are several small areas of red-calcined earth, which are interpreted as the remains of hearths [Ibid]. The abundance of burnt bones, which predominate over charcoal, suggests that the bones were used as fuel [Ibid].

Traces of fire were also recorded on the Spanish Torralba monument, dating from 0.3-0.35 million years AGO. Excavations uncovered an area of more than 30 m2, where four retouched flakes were found along with the partially articulated remains of the left half of the skeleton of a large elephant (Howell, 1966). In the area to the southeast, other remains of the same individual were found, as well as bones of bovids. Several charcoal stains were also observed here [Ibid], suggesting that the elephant meat was processed by fire. 232 pieces of charcoal and hundreds of almost microscopic crumbs were found in Torralba (Freeman, 1975). Unique taphonomic conditions ensured the preservation of not only charcoal, but also 76 fragments of wood and 31 natural casts of decomposed large wooden objects, including items with signs of processing [Ibid]. One of these 12 cm long trapezoidal objects has darker areas on the surface, indicating the possibility of firing (Howell, 1966).

The San Quirse site in Cantabria, dating from the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene, has a rich stone industry with no faunal remains. Stone products "were concentrated in the area associated with ash and a possible hearth" (Raposo and Santonja, 1995, p. 10). A more reliable source was described at the Middle Pleistocene Solana del Zamborino locality in Grenada (Spain). It is a "circle denoted by

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five quartzite pebbles, with a large amount of charcoal and ash in the central part" [Ibid, p. 19].

At the Terra Amata site in Nice (France), an object has been excavated that is recognized as the oldest example of a structure with internal hearths. TL dating indicates an age of 0.25-0.2 Ma, and correlation of the corresponding geological layer with isotopic stage 9 suggests a date of 0.33 Ma [Villa, 1983]. According to new TL dates, the age is 0.38 Ma (Scarre, 1998). The hearths were found in the center of the hut, of which only the pits of the supporting pillars were preserved. They are patches of reddened sand with a width of approx. 30 cm with charcoal and reddish pebbles. Accumulations of charcoal, burnt flints, mollusk shells (Villa, 1983), and bones (Villa P. Fire and fireplaces in the Middle and Upper Pleistocene of Western Europe. Paper presented at the XlVth UISPP Congress. - Liege, 2001).

Data on the existence of a connection between hearths and residential structures were also obtained at the Bilzingsleben site (Germany), which is 0.3 million years old. Here, the foundations of three dwellings were identified, with foci in front of them (Mania, 1995). The presence of charcoal, burnt stones and bones is also reported. In the Middle Pleistocene deposits of the Azykh cave in the Caucasus, two angelic layers were revealed.

Four foci were found in them, one of which was located inside a possible residential structure outlined by limestone blocks (Ljubin and Bosinski, 1995).

Fire and human settlement

Scientists have made great efforts to determine the archaeological traces of fire and the initial stages of mastering fire. The criteria used to identify traces of fire are very diverse. Equally diverse are the materials that reflect the use of fire by humans. These are burnt objects (stones, bones, wood, shells), calcined deposits, ash, charcoal.

All available evidence suggests that the first purposeful use of fire may have begun in Africa around 1.5 million years ago.Homo erectus (in the broadest sense) was most likely the first of our ancestors to overcome the fear of fire and "tame" it for their own needs. It was around 1.5 million years AGO that Homo erectus began to develop new territories and human settlement outside of Africa began. Chronological and geographical distribution of the earliest traces of fire use (tab. 2) suggests that it may have played a stimulating role at this stage of human settlement.

Table 2. Chronological and geographical distribution of the main possible traces of fire

Date, million years ago

Africa

LEVANT

Asia

Europe

1,5

ˆ+Koobi Handicap

+Ubeidia

#Sihoudu

Tadeb

ˆChesovaniya

ˆ Middle Avash

# Svartkrans

Tongwanglin

1,0

- Calambo Falls

ˆ +Hearth Cave

#Bizat Ruhama

+-*Gesher Benot Yaakov

#*Yuanmou

+Latamna

- Trinil I

ˆ +#*Przezpetice

0,5

ˆ#+Zhoukoudian

ˆ +Schöningen

ˆ +Beach Pit

#*Shandalya I

# Stranska Skala I

, Azykh

0,35

ˆ +Herd

# Verteshselesh

ˆ +#Kezem

ˆ +#*Pj Cat

+Revadem

-*Torralba

"- Terra Amata

ˆ +# * Bilzingsleben

Note: + - burnt stones; # - burnt bones; - - burnt wood; ˆ - calcined deposits; burnt shells; * - charcoal.

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Usually, the first penetration of humans from Africa to Eurasia is attributed to 1.8 million years ago. This date also underlies the so-called long chronology (see [Dennell, 2003]). R. Dennell gave a detailed review of traces of human presence outside of East Africa in the early Pleistocene [Ibid]. Based on the results of an analysis of materials from North Africa, South Asia, and Europe, he concluded that during the early Pleistocene, the colonization capabilities of Homo erectus were very limited and that " hominids probably did not begin to permanently use the areas of northern latitudes (45-50° N), which include most of Europe." earlier than in the Middle Pleistocene" [Ibid, p. 435].

The age and character of the earliest European settlement is a subject of intense discussion and debate (see, for example, [The Earliest..., 1995]; see also [Dennell, 2003; Roebroeks, 2001]). In general, however, there is agreement on the estimated time of origin and permanent presence of hominids-approximately 0.5 million years ago [Ibid]. Within the framework of this "short chronology", few monuments older than 500 thousand years (for example, Atapuerca [Falgueres et al., 1999; Pares and Perez-Gonzalez, 1999], Fuente Nueva 3, and Barranco Leon [Oms et al., 2000]) are considered marginal and atypical. V. Robroeks emphasizes that north of the Pyrenees and Alps "there are no Lower-and Middle-Pleistocene sites, but even if hominids lived along the perimeter of the Mediterranean Sea from the end of the Lower Pleistocene, then significant changes in their behavior must have occurred to penetrate further north" (Roebroeks, 2001, p. 454).

A review of European data suggests that the ability to control and maintain fire may have been the behavioral innovation that allowed colonization of northern Europe (Villa, 1994). "The lack of systematic use of fire may have been one of the reasons for the duration of the process of settling Europe" (see Villa P. Fire..., p. 4). The earliest settlers did not possess the technology of producing fire that could have ensured permanent habitation in Europe, which, judging by the geographical and chronological distribution of archaeological sites, began only about ca. 0.5 million hp

The use of fire has become a boon for people. Being "tamed", the fire provided protection from predators, heat, light and allowed to expand the range of exploited food resources. Thus, it can be argued that it was the fire that enabled a person to master new niches. "Having learned how to make fire, a person was able to leave the area to which he was initially attached, and, successfully adapting to different environmental conditions, eventually settle the entire earth" [Hough, 1916, p. 257].

Acknowledgements

Field research at Gesher Benot Yaakov was supported by the Liki Foundation and the National Geographic Society. Laboratory tests were carried out thanks to the Irene Levi-Sala Archaeological Foundation, an Israeli science Foundation established by the Israeli Academy of Sciences, the Liki Foundation, and two grants from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. We would like to thank Erella Hovers for her comments on the draft article, as well as Adi Ben-Nun (GIS Center, Hebrew University) and Sue Gorodetsky. The author of photos 2 and 3 is Gaby Laron.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 14.02.06.

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