Research on the development of the fuel and energy complex and the industrial and raw materials sector in Africa is the focus of Russian Africanists. A number of important works on this subject have been published.¹

The centre for the study of the transition economy of the Institute of African studies held a scientific-practical seminar (head - head. E. V. Morozenskaya), where 15 reports of leading Russian Africanists were presented on various issues relevant to the development of a new economic strategy for the states of North and Sub-Saharan Africa, including South Africa.

E. V. Morozenskaya in her report "Regulation of the mining industry in Africa: A Clash of interests" focused on the features of the new scheme of state regulation in the extractive industries created during the liberalization of industry in Africa in the late 1990s. In particular, it was supposed to actively involve specialists from non-governmental organizations in the process of economic regulation in the extractive industries (as consultants).

The situation was much more complicated in the sphere of relations between regulatory authorities and private landowners on the issue of state participation in the profits of mining companies. Since the state is not only a regulator, but also a "stimulator" in the field of industrial development, African Governments tend to reserve the right to make final decisions on controversial issues.

Taxation in the sphere of mineral resources use is important for African countries, especially for exporters of raw materials. The right of ownership of mineral resources here, as in most countries of the world, is usually assigned to the central government or to the governments of individual provinces (lands). They are the legal owners of mineral wealth throughout the territory, where they exercise their legislative rights, regardless of whether the land is owned by the State or some private owner. At the same time, the object of private property can only be widespread and low-value minerals - such as sand, gravel, clay, etc. (This procedure automatically eliminates the reasons for absolute rent.)

As for the differential rent received by the owner of richer or more favorable mining, geological or geographical mineral reserves, it is part of the total profit from the development of the deposit. The profit of a direct entrepreneur should provide him with a return on his investment in the development and operation of the field, as well as an average rate of profit that justifies the company's further activities.

All this determines some features of taxation of mining companies. So, in addition to all types of legally levied taxes, they are also required to pay a tax on mining, special rent payments and some other types of taxes. At the same time, they can also enjoy tax benefits and special discounts (for depletion of mineral resources, depreciation deductions, etc.). Both are usually determined by the central government. When implementing fiscal policies in the extractive industry, African States use a fairly wide range of direct and indirect taxes. At the same time, the mining company pays direct taxes directly to the state (based on the results of its economic activities), and indirect taxes are set regardless of the actual volume of mineral extraction.

If the goal of African States is to accelerate economic growth and increase their savings, then their fiscal policies should be part of investment policy rather than fiscal policy. The desire of commodity-exporting countries to fill the budget by increasing the tax burden leads to the growth of the shadow economy, instead of stimulating the inflow of investment and, as a result, expanding the tax base.

In his report on the role of the industrial sector in modern concepts of economic development in Africa, V. P. Morozov (Ph. D. in Economics, Professor, IAfr RAS) noted that the Lagos Action Plan adopted in 1980 became the fundamental document for all subsequent strategies of economic development in Africa. All these strategies, including the NEPAD programme ("New Partnership for Africa's Development"), based on the main provisions of the Lagos Plan on the role of the state in the economy, infrastructure, investment, etc.

Currently, all international organizations continue to support the desire of African countries to develop based on the use of domestic resources, promising to provide them with external assistance. At the same time, funding from international organizations is targeted: for infrastructure development, for government support, etc.The African elite continues to develop strategies - both national and sectoral - most often based on this assistance.

However, the difficult financial and economic situation in the world is diverting assets from Africa, both in the form of development assistance and in the form of foreign direct investment (FDI). Decreases and

the role of gold as a commodity support for the development of the African economy, there is a "sunset" of the era of expensive oil (while 26 countries of the continent currently have oil and gas reserves). In the era of the spread of nanotechnologies, the latest types of chemical industry, etc., the need for heavy metals will decrease more and more noticeably against the background of increasing demand for steel, titanium, etc. As a result, the importance of Africa as a global commodity "storehouse" will decrease.

In these circumstances, the main strategy for the countries of the continent is to strengthen their ties with business (primarily represented by multinational corporations) - in particular, in the form of joint ventures. A promising area of such cooperation is the development of production facilities to increase the purity of processing of raw materials for their further export and use in the domestic market.

Considerable attention was paid to the role of FDI in the development of the energy sector in Africa. According to Roshchin G. E. (Doctor of Economics, IAfr RAS), world experience shows that FDI, the vast majority of which is controlled by transnational corporations (TNCs), can play a significant role in the development and modernization of the economy, structural transformations of the real sector in recipient countries.

African countries are actively engaged in competitive competition for receiving FDI and attracting entrepreneurial capital from outside. The huge energy and raw material potential of Africa (primarily oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium deposits) is of great interest to the largest TNCs based in the United States, Europe, China, India, Brazil, and the rapidly developing countries of Southeast Asia.

African states need not only financial resources, but also high-value assets of TNCs, such as advanced technologies, managerial and organizational experience, trademarks, etc. According to experts of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), African States should direct domestic and external financial resources to implement such development programs that would guarantee the creation of jobs (by 2030 - at least 60 million), primarily for young people.

The report of S. V. Bondarenko (Ph. D. in Economics, IAfr RAS) and A. V. Tkachenko (Ph. D. in Economics, IAfr RAS) noted that the continued growth of FDI in the fuel and energy sector of African countries in the 2000s was primarily due to the fact that the continent has significant reserves of various energy sources the development of which promises solid profits. Africa accounts for about 10% ($17 billion) of the world's proven oil reserves. t), natural gas - 8% (over 15 trillion cubic meters). m), uranium-235-over 20%. The African continent accounts for about 1/3 of the world's water resources, and the potential of non-traditional energy sources (solar, wind, and sea wave energy) is also significant.

At the same time, African countries are in urgent need of developing energy as a basic branch of the national economy, and increasing their production capacity to meet their export needs. It is possible to meet these needs in the current realities only by attracting foreign capital with the necessary financial and material resources, advanced technologies, modern management experience, etc. to develop existing resources. The countries of Africa do not have the scientific and technical potential sufficient for the independent formation of their own electric power complex. Almost all branches of the industry-from the introduction of energy sources and primary energy carriers to the production and distribution of electricity - are created and operate on the basis of cooperation with foreign capital, mainly with the world's largest energy companies.

In the 2000s, Russian energy companies also appeared and are actively operating on the continent. They mainly cooperate with local companies in the construction of medium and small energy facilities in the electric power industry (construction of dams on rivers, construction of thermal power plants, etc.), as well as modernization and repair of energy facilities built earlier with the participation of Soviet (Russian) specialists.

The features of the current activities of oil TNCs in the countries of Central and West Africa were considered in the report of Tsvetkova N. N. (Ph. D. in Economics, IV RAS). Oil TNCs, which are among the leading multinational corporations in terms of foreign operations, have discovered oil fields in Africa and started producing oil there: Royal Dutch Shell-in Nigeria since 1958, Total-in the Republic of Congo since the late 1960s, Exxon Mobil - in Equatorial Guinea since 1995. Currently, the "big five" oil TNCs (mentioned above, as well as British Petroleum and Chevron) are leading in terms of turnover.

At the same time, the first places in oil and gas production are increasingly occupied not by Western TNCs, but by national oil and gas companies of oil and gas producing countries, mainly state-owned ones. TNCs compensate for the loss of control over one stage - oil and gas production - by maintaining control over other stages - transportation, oil refining, and sales of petroleum products. For example, the Anglo-Dutch TNK Royal Dutch Shell created a mixed company with the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation.

The presentation of V. V. Pavlov (Doctor of Economics, Professor, IAfr RAS) was devoted to the analysis of a number of updated programs for long-term financing of projects in the energy sector of the continent by the African Development Bank (AfDB). These programs are aimed at ensuring universal and uninterrupted supply of grid electricity to consumers at affordable prices by 2030.

In 2013-2015, the AfDB sought to significantly expand the attraction of additional foreign private investment to the region in new energy projects with long-term payback, including cross-border ones; to ensure more effective interaction of private foreign investors with the national state; to create more stable conditions for the activities of foreign shareholders and investors; to integrate their investment activities into the long-term energy programs of accelerate the formation of a regional energy market.

Of particular interest in the rapidly changing geopolitical and geo-economic conditions of recent years are the vicissitudes of competition for the oil market of African countries from China and India. China's participation in the development of the African energy sector is reflected in the rapid growth of China's accumulated foreign direct investment in Africa. As noted in the report by T. L. Deich (Doctor of Historical Sciences, IAfr RAS), from 2009 to 2012. they increased from $9.33 billion. up to $21.23 billion. Over 90% of FDI is represented by large state-owned companies: Sinopec, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation (Sinopec), China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC).

Turning the" resource curse " of Africa into an engine of its economic growth, China is creating enterprises for processing raw materials, infrastructure facilities, and training personnel. So, CNPC invested $4 billion. in the oil industry of Sudan, creating its own oil industry in the country. The Merow hydroelectric power station has been built - the largest structure on the Nile after the Aswan dam. China Development Bank has provided Ghana with a $3 billion loan to build a gas pipeline, a terminal and a liquefied natural gas plant. Wuhan Iron and Steel Corporation invested in Mozambique's coal fields; Kinho Energy invested in a coal terminal in the port of Beira and a hydroelectric power station in Mozambique. In 2014, under an agreement with Zimbabwe, China Efrica Sunlight invested $2 billion. an energy project that includes the construction of a coal mine, a dam and two power plants (with a capacity of 300 MW each).

Until 2017, China plans to invest in new energy projects, and solar power plants have already been built in South Africa and Egypt. Sudan, Ethiopia and other African countries have significant resources of biomass, solar and wind energy. This potential is being taken up by China, which is helping Africa to get rid of "energy poverty" and solve the acute problem of energy security for it.

India entered the struggle for the oil market of African countries. As noted by E. A. Bragina (Doctor of Economics, IMEMO RAS), the Government of India headed by N. Modi has set the task of re-industrialization of the country, the solution of which largely depends on the expansion of the energy base. At the same time, there is still a significant gap between the needs of the Indian economy for raw hydrocarbons and the volume of its own production. As of 2013, oil consumption per day was 3,292,000 barrels, while production was 972,000 barrels. The deficit was covered by imports: spending on oil imports almost doubled in 2009-2012. This is why India has been one of the few countries in the world to benefit from the recent drop in oil prices.

This, however, does not reduce its interest in a steady and regular supply of energy raw materials. In order to further diversify its suppliers, Indian businessmen in the 2000s intensified their activities, primarily in the oil-exporting countries of South and East Africa (while facing competition from Chinese companies). India's largest state-owned company, ONGC Ltd, which has extensive experience in developing oil fields, including on the African continent, plays an important role in strengthening India's position in this region and trying to gain a foothold in West Africa.

V. Y. Kukushkin (Ph. D. in Economics, IAfr RAS) and Yu.S. Skubko (Ph. D. in Economics, IAfr RAS) presented their reports on the problems of the South African economy. The first report focused on the mutual influence of the situation in the iron and steel industry and in the country's economy as a whole, and the second - on ways to overcome the energy crisis in South Africa.

According to V. Y. Kukushkin, some sub-sectors of the metallurgical industry in South Africa are experiencing deindustrialization processes, for example, in the use of chromium resources. If in 2003 South Africa was the absolute leader in ferrochrome production (more than half of the world's volume), then in 2013 its share decreased to 32%, and China became the leader, which does not have its own industrial reserves of chromium ore at all and relies exclusively on imported raw materials.

The main problem of South African ferrochrome producers is recognized as the tension in the electricity balance of South Africa, since 2008. It is particularly acute in winter, provoking an increase in the cost of electricity and the inevitable increase in costs in this energy-intensive industry (in 2007-2013, they more than doubled), reducing its competitiveness in the global market. In recent years, integrated ferrochrome producers have often been forced to decommission more than 30% of their smelting capacity for the winter period, exporting non-enriched ore (mainly to China).

In this regard, the possibility of nationalizing all or most of the mining industry in South Africa is being discussed. This idea is supported, in particular, by the Confederation of South African Trade Unions and the Youth League of the ruling African National Congress party. However, opponents of radical property reforms fear undermining the investment attractiveness of the country's key industrial complex, which is in dire need of an influx of foreign capital.

The main obstacle to the development of the national metallurgy industry in South Africa is the predominance of a depressive economic environment in the 2010s.Low business activity in the industries that are the main consumers of metallurgical products, primarily in capital construction, industrial and social infrastructure, has a particularly negative impact on domestic demand. Some hopes are pinned by South African steelmakers on the activation of state macroeconomic incentives. For example, ArcelorMittal South Africa Ltd attributes the increase in profit at the beginning of 2014 to the depreciation of the rand. However, it is hardly justified to count on the long-term effect of such emergency measures, especially since they are inevitably accompanied by an increase in the already high social tension.

In South Africa, large prospects for the development of material-intensive and highly high-tech machine-building industries based on the results of national research projects are rather poorly used.

R & D is the production of equipment for the mining and processing industry, mining equipment, production lines for the synthesis of liquid fuels from natural gas and coal, as well as equipment for solar energy and for generating energy from other non - traditional sources.

As Yu. S. Skubko noted, the power grid infrastructure of South Africa is currently operating at the limit of its capabilities. The country has been experiencing a crisis that is reminiscent of periodic rolling blackouts and forced Eskom Corporation, which controls this industry, to reintroduce rationing of electricity supply since 2007. This disrupts the implementation of state plans for economic development and limits the average annual GDP growth to less than 2% (the real sector of the economy is in a state of stagnation).

In order to overcome coal energy dependence, eight nuclear power plants with a total capacity of 9.6 GW are planned to be commissioned in 2023-2030 (South Africa has one nuclear power plant built in 1984 by France). Preliminary agreements have been signed with Russia, France, China and South Korea on their financing and construction. It should also be noted that the development of solar energy has begun, in which the Russian company Renova is also taking part.

Along with increasing attention to the resources of renewable energy sources, primarily solar energy, the market's interest in the prospects for developing new oil and gas fields in the continent's countries, primarily in East Africa, continues unabated. N. F. Matveeva's report on this problem (IAfr RAS) notes a noticeable "reversal" of the activities of European and Asian companies to the east of the continent. For example, the British company Tullow Oil, which discovered a large oil field near Lake Turkana (Kenya) in the 2010s, plans to start commercial oil production in 2017 (together with the American Anadarko Petroleum Corporation and East Africa Oil and Gas Australia) and build a pipeline for its transportation to South Sudan.

In Tanzania, consortia of British companies BG Group and Ophir Energy, as well as Statoil (Norway) and Exxon Mobil participate in the development of natural gas deposits on the continental shelf. China's CNOOC Corporation and Russia's Gazprom also intend to take part in the tenders.

If industrial production is established in the oil and gas fields discovered in East Africa and an appropriate transport infrastructure is created, this will help to increase the provision of energy resources to the countries of the region, since agreements on the participation of foreign companies in the development of fields provide for mandatory deliveries of part of the resulting products to the domestic markets of these countries. In addition, it will contribute to the growth of budget revenues in East African countries through royalties, annual royalties and a number of other fees, as well as the creation of new jobs.

The significant potential of shale gas resources in Africa also attracts investors. According to the report of L. N. Kalinichenko (IAfr RAS), according to the results of geological surveys conducted by the American Energy Information Administration (EIA), and according to national African companies, the countries of North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania) and South Africa have significant potential Africa (South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia). At the same time, Algeria and South Africa are among the ten countries with the largest reserves of this type of raw material in the world.

The availability of shale gas resources in sparsely populated areas of the continent is a very attractive factor for large oil and gas TNCs and at the same time is of interest to African states - from the point of view of the possibility of replenishing the energy balance and possible exports in the future.

Some institutional aspects of raw material exports in Africa were discussed in the report of Z. S. Novikova (Ph. D. in Economics, IAfr RAS). While the importance of exports of goods and services to their economies remains high (in 2010, their share in GDP averaged 30.1%, including raw materials-24%), relations between Africa and its traditional partners are fundamentally changing. The rapid development of industry in fast-growing economies, especially in China, is causing an unprecedented increase in demand for raw materials. Competition between the world's leading countries for African resources is growing. This forces the EU and the US to adopt laws to protect their interests in this area, and to change their relations with African countries.

It is important for African States to build relations with partner countries on the basis of equal cooperation in trade and investment. National strategies should include control over the operation of deposits, transparency of the activities of foreign companies, including information related to their income generation, contracts, tax payments, and publication of accounting statements. The creation of a regulatory framework and proper resource management will enable African countries to take their rightful place in the modern global world.

The report of I. B. Matsenko (Ph. D. in Economics, IAfr RAS) discussed the opportunities for creating jobs in the industry of African countries. Despite significant economic growth in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in recent years, the prospect of a continuous increase in the number of jobs remains unlikely. Economic growth was not accompanied by an increase in employment in high-performance and labor-intensive sectors of the economy (such as manufacturing), but mainly in extractive industries, agriculture, and the low-productive informal service sector. As a result, these countries have not been able to create enough jobs for the fast-growing working-age population, especially in non-agricultural sectors.

The ILO estimates that between 70% and 80% of workers in Tropical Africa have unprotected forms of employment, the highest rate in the world. In these circumstances, the challenge is how to transform the existing labor market, where people are employed in casual informal jobs in cities and on farms (often for scanty pay or no pay at all-

you), in a market that can offer more opportunities for employment in the manufacturing industry and the modern service sector, as well as guarantees of getting paid work and social protection.

To create jobs and reduce poverty, African countries need to achieve high, sustainable and inclusive economic growth through structural transformation. Experience shows that significant progress in employment and poverty reduction has been achieved by those countries that have successfully implemented structural changes that have shifted resources and productive factors from low-productivity to high-performance activities in all sectors of the economy.

The main directions and current problems in the sphere of cooperation between Russia and Africa in the energy sector were analyzed in the report of E. N. Korendyasov (Ph. D. in Economics, IAfr RAS). In the context of the acute energy crisis that African countries are experiencing, interest in nuclear power has increased on the continent since the early 2000s. This was supported by such industrial, financial, scientific and technical prerequisites as the commissioning of 10 research reactors (in Ghana, DR Congo, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa) and the establishment in 2010 of independent nuclear regulatory bodies under the auspices of the IAEA to monitor the construction, reliability and safety of operations reactors.

Given the potential of Africa, Rosatom has included it in its strategy to expand its presence in the global nuclear energy market. In particular, in February 2015, an agreement was signed with Egypt on the development of a project for the construction of a 1000-1200 MW nuclear power plant. As part of negotiations on the participation of Russian enterprises in the implementation of the South African nuclear energy program, an agreement was signed in 2007 on Russia's supply of enriched uranium to cover 43% of South Africa's needs by 2018. Moreover, the Russian Federation has declared its readiness to create together with South African companies a nuclear cluster with a full-scale production cycle, including obtaining nuclear fuel, engineering and industrial production of complex equipment.

Rosatom undertakes to build 6-8 reactors based on the latest "post-Fukushima" technologies to ensure reliability and safety, and to carry out their maintenance, including the supply of fuel cells for the entire life cycle of nuclear power plants. In addition, it is planned to achieve the most concentrated (up to 60%) localization of objects, which will create 15 thousand jobs on them and up to 150 thousand in related industries, as well as promote the training of qualified personnel. For the implementation of this project, the Russian Federation undertakes to provide a preferential state loan in the amount of 70-80% of the construction cost ($40-50 billion). In September 2014, a framework Intergovernmental agreement on strategic partnership between Russia and South Africa in the field of nuclear energy and industry was signed, which implies Rosatom's entry into the South African nuclear energy market in the future, which will make the partnership between Russia and South Africa strong and reliable.

Continuing the "energy" theme, A.D. Savateev (Doctor of Historical Sciences, IAfr RAS) outlined the idea of creating an international university of energy in Russia. The need to implement such an international cultural and educational project was justified by the acute shortage of electricity in different regions of the world-primarily in Africa (there are areas with a complete lack of electrification), as well as in many Asian and Latin American countries. It is impossible to solve this problem, which has become global, without qualified engineering and economic personnel.

The International University of Energy is designed to train certified specialists and scientific personnel for the countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America in the entire range of specialties related to energy. They include scientific research, exploration and production of oil and gas, implementation of projects in nuclear power, hydropower, renewable energy, as well as socio-economic and socio-cultural aspects of these projects.

By putting forward and implementing this project, Russia will strengthen the creative image of Soviet/Russian education that has developed among Africans over many years. This university in the current difficult international environment will become a powerful argument for the peaceful intentions of the Russian state, evidence of its desire to help weak countries in raising their intellectual, economic and cultural potential. Finally, it will contribute to the practical implementation of the goal proclaimed in Russia of turning the country into a global energy power. In addition, this initiative will help build human resources in the energy sector on the African continent. This will benefit both African states, allowing them to achieve a certain degree of independence in the field of personnel training, and Russia, providing it with opportunities for long-term cooperation with African countries in the use of energy resources with the participation of specialists trained at the International University of Energy.

The review was prepared E. V. MOROZENSKAYA, Candidate of Economic Sciences

Institute of Africa, Russian Academy of Sciences

^{Abramova I. O., Fituni L. L.} 1 Perspektivy razvitiya TEK Afrika i interesy Rossii [Prospects for the development of the Fuel and energy complex in Africa and the Interests of Russia]. 2014. N 11. pp. 3-12. (Abramova I. O., Fituni L. L. 2014. Perspektivy razvitiya i Afriki i interesy Rossii / / Aziya i Afrika segodnya. N 11) (in Russian); their own-The price of "blue gold" / / Asia and Africa today. 2008. N 12. pp. 7-12. ( Abramova I.O., Fituni L.L. 2008. Tsena "golubogo zolota" // Aziya i Afrika segodnya. N 12) (in Russian); Abramova I. O., Fituni L. L. Resource Potential of Africa and Russia's National Interests in the XXI Century. Moscow, 2010; Kukushkin V. Yu. North Africa: "Arab Spring" and prospects for modernization of hydrocarbon exporting countries / / Asia and Africa today. 2014. N 8. С. 19-25. (Kukushkin V.Yu. 2014. Severnaya Afrika: "Arabskaya vesna" i perspektivy modernizatzii... // Aziya i Afrika segodnya. No. 8) (in Russian); Korendyasov E. N. The Battle for uranium in the Sahara and in the Sahel. 2013. Т. 19. N 4. С. 61-70. (Korendyasov E.N. 2013. Bitva za uran v Sahare i v Sahele // Indeks Bezopasnosti. T. 19. N 4) (in Russian)

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