The term "human development index"is often used in the economic literature. Please explain what this concept means.

Drobyshev settlement, Samara

The standard of living of the people in each country is mainly determined by the degree of development of the economic and social sphere, the state of the external environment. To assess the standard of living, UN experts have developed the "Human Development Index" (HDI), which includes four coefficients calculated from the following statistical indicators: 1. Real annual income per capita (in thousands of dollars, taking into account the purchasing power of the dollar in the country). 2. Average life expectancy. 3. Adult literacy rate. 4. Generalized indicator of the state of the external environment.

The UN publishes a book of statistics on 174 countries every year. Traditionally, they are divided into three groups: "developed"," developing "and" less developed "(they were too shy to use the word" poor") countries.

In 1999, the UN published HDI data dating back to 1998. The first group includes 45 developed countries. Their per capita income is an average of $ 22,000. Life expectancy is 77 years and above. Literacy is 100 percent. The state of the natural environment was assessed with 79 points.

The second group consists of 94 developing countries. The per capita income is $ 3,300. Life expectancy is 67 years. Literacy is 76 percent. State of the natural environment - 64 points.

The third group consists of 35 " less developed countries "(most of them are African countries). Their per capita income is $ 1,000. Life expectancy is 50 years. Literacy of the population is 48 percent. The state of the natural environment is estimated by 30 points.

Figures describing HDI in Russia: per capita income is $ 4,400, and life expectancy is 67 years. Literacy is 100 percent. State of the natural environment - 77 points. The HDI figures for Ukraine, respectively, are: $ 2,200, 67 years, 100 percent, 77 points.

Many Jews belong to the Hasidic sect. I would like to know who the Hasidim are and what the basics of their faith are.

B. Chizhov, Perm

To answer the reader's question, we turned to the works of the specialist, orientalist A. B. Volkov.

Hasidism is one of the religious movements of Judaism that originated among the Jews of Poland at the beginning of the XVIII century. Translated from Hebrew, the word "Hasid" means "pious", "pious".

The founder of Hasidism is Israel Besht (1700-1760). He gained wide popularity as a healer and healer of physical and mental ailments. The people saw the source of I. Besht's healing art in his holiness and closeness to the Creator, that is, to God.

What historical events in Poland influenced the formation of the ideology of Hasidism? In the second half of the 17th century, economic life in Poland gradually declined. This was facilitated by the socio-political instability in the country, as well as the devastating wars of Poland with Russia and Sweden. The deterioration of the country's economic situation and political turmoil have led to a weakening of the central government and Poland's authority in European politics. Poland was experiencing an acute national crisis, which caused a drop in the standard of living, including for the Jewish population. The crisis was especially negative in the southern regions of Poland, in particular, in Podolia, which became the center of the spread of the Hasidic movement.

At that time, many Jews, especially in the villages and small rural areas, fell into a deep depression. The despair that gripped the people was so deep that they felt the need for a new teaching, which Israel Besht was making at that time. He reached out to those who needed him most: the losers, the simple villagers, those who felt abandoned by everyone, including the religious Jewish mentors.

According to the teachings of the founder of Hasidism. God (Shekinah - world soul) is present in everything that surrounds a person. This religious-pantheistic view was used to infer the possibility of a believer's "direct contact" with the Shekinah in prayer, which makes "Talmudic scholarship" and rabbinic mediation unnecessary.

The philosophy of Hasidism is based on an antinomy -a contradiction between two mutually exclusive propositions that are recognized as equally provable in a logical way. At the same time, Hasidic mentors believe that the main defect of a person's spiritual development is indifference to the world around them and its phenomena. The strength of the Hasidic movement, they argue, lies in a person's ability to fight indifference.

Here are some examples that characterize the philosophy of Hasidism. His followers believe that the opposite of love is not hatred, but indifference; the opposite of faith is not heresy, but indifference; the opposite of education is not ignorance, but indifference; the opposite of life is not death, but indifference.

What does it mean to be indifferent? - ask the Hasidim. It means: to be indifferent to the other, to his joy and grief.

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The social and psychological origins of Hasidic teaching lie in the difficult living conditions of ordinary workers who constantly experienced the burden of everyday worries. As a result, they developed a strong need to approach God personally and communicate with him directly.

The founders of Hasidism believed that for believers, serving God should not be presented as a tedious fulfillment of numerous ritual prescriptions, but as an exalted, joyful, exultant state of religious ecstasy, in which the soul of the worshipper rushes directly to the throne of the Creator.

Such a mystical union with God, according to the ideologists of Hasidism, should instill in the soul of the believer healing forces to overcome everyday adversities, fill his existence with joyful light. That is why the followers of Israel Besht put forward the so-called "doctrine of joy"in order to convert Jews to the new faith. Its essence was manifested in the songs and dances of an ecstatic Hasidic religious cult, as well as in the rejection of asceticism.

With some reservations, the Hasidic movement can be compared to Protestantism in Christianity. A similar point in both movements was the emphasis on the intimate and sensual side of religion, rather than on ritualism and dogmatics. In the literature on Jewish religion and culture, there is a point of view that Hasidism is not considered sectarianism. This position is based on the fact that the Hasidim did not make fundamental changes in the dogma of Judaism. However, not all scientists share such views. For example, the researcher of Hasidism M. Buber qualifies it as a sectarian movement. Another expert, R. Seltzer, agrees with him, who has no doubt that " Hasidism has challenged the official ruling class in the Jewish religion." The largest number of followers of Hasidism now live in Israel and the United States.

Of course, we have focused only on some of the features of the Hasidic movement and have not been able to cover many other aspects of it.

Please tell us how and when the Philippine Islands were discovered and why they are so named.

P. Kamyshin, Kostroma

The discovery of the Philippine Islands dates back to the first quarter of the 16th century. At that time, the fashion for spices - cinnamon, cumin, ginger, saffron, nutmeg and pepper-spread in Europe. These condiments were literally worth their weight in gold, because no prestigious dinner was complete without them. In addition, spices were widely used as a disinfectant, antibacterial agent, although at that time, of course, nothing was known about bacteria. The monarchs raved about exotic goods and equipped one expedition after another to search for them.

In 1519, the Spanish King Carlos I sent an expedition to distant countries led by the Portuguese Fernand Magellan, who was in his service, who gained the infamous fame of one of the first colonizers. Early colonialism at that time had one thing in common: it operated under the banner of religion. The seizure of land was carried out under the slogan of saving the souls of pagans. The Spaniards considered themselves the chosen nation to establish the Christian faith in the lands they were discovering. The king promised to pay Magellan a twentieth of the income from the new lands.

The voyage of the Magellan expedition was difficult. For two years the ships were at sea. The last three months had been the most difficult: the sailors were swollen with hunger, boiled and ate cowhide belts, and sawdust was also used for food.

And now, finally, the suffering of the sailors is over. On April 7, 1521, the ships landed in the Visayas Islands (now part of the Philippines). First, Magellan landed on the sparsely populated island of the Visayas archipelago-Limasave. Tattooed from head to toe, the locals welcomed the strangers. Chief Columbu treated them to a variety of food and palm wine. In response, Magellan presented the natives with combs and mirrors.

On Easter Sunday, Magellan solemnly baptized Columbus, converting him to the Christian faith. Then he asked the chief if he had any enemies and if he needed help to subdue them. The chief replied that there were enemies: two neighboring islands, but now is not the time to fight. If only Magellan had listened to the advice! But he was preoccupied with something else: where to get food for the crew? Columbu advised me to go to the rich island of Cebu. Approaching the island, the ships fired a volley of guns. Seeing the panic among the natives, Magellan sent messengers ashore to explain to the island's chief, Humabon, that the salvo was only a sign of greeting. After some thought, the chief replied: if the captain wants peace and friendship, let him send a drop of blood from his right hand, and he will send him his own. The blood contract with the chief was reinforced by an exchange of gifts.

Soon Magellan baptized Humabon, who converted to the Christian faith. Magellan proclaimed him king of Cebu and all the surrounding islands. The chief recognized himself as a subject of the Spanish king and swore allegiance to the crown.

After saying Mass, the Spaniards proceeded to baptize the rest of the natives. If anyone resisted, their hut was mercilessly burned. The inhabitants of Cebu dutifully paid the Spaniards the first tribute-they provided the expedition with provisions.

However, the chief of the neighboring island of Mactan named Lapu-Lapu did not recognize Humabon as king and flatly refused to pay tribute to the Spaniards. Deciding to pacify the rebels with his own hands, Magellan went to the island, but was killed in the ensuing battle.

After discovering the islands, Magellan named them the Saint Lazarus Archipelago. And only half a century later, the islands, and then the country located on them, were named the Philippines in honor of the Crown Prince of Spain - Philip II.

The name of Magellan, who brought the Christian faith to the islands, is sacred in the Philippines. And Lapa-Lapa is revered as the first fighter for the independence of the motherland. Monuments to both have been erected in the Philippines.

It is known that Islam prohibits the use of alcoholic beverages. And why?

N. Krugloe, Astrakhan

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When preparing the answer to the reader's question, we used the scientific works of the Oriental scholar Professor D. E. Eremeev and other experts in the field of Islam.

For a Muslim, it is considered a grave sin not only to drink alcohol, but even to be present at a drunken feast. Sharia law makes "prohibition" one of the basic principles of behavior of a devout Muslim in everyday life. One of the hadiths (sayings of the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad) says: "Wine is a source of sins. The one who has drunk wine loses his mind. He does not know God, does not recognize anyone's rights, does not respect anyone, even his relatives and friends, and easily commits bad deeds. The spirit of faith and piety leaves him, the spirit of abomination and depravity takes possession of him. He is cursed by God, angels, prophets, and the faithful. For forty days his prayers will not be answered. On the Day of Judgment, his face will be black, his tongue will hang out of his mouth, his saliva will flow on his chest..."

The paradox is that it was the Arabs, among whom Islam was born, who invented alcohol. What are the reasons for the ban on alcohol in Islam? Historical facts cover the origin of this tradition quite well.

The founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad, in his sermons proclaimed jihad as one of the main principles of the new faith - the obligatory participation of his followers in the war for the introduction of Islam among the conquered population. Drunkenness, to which many Arabs were subject, interfered with the performance of this duty of a devout Muslim. There were cases when drunkenness literally mowed down the ranks of the soldiers of Islam, the bulk of which consisted of former Bedouins who were not resistant to the temptation of the "green serpent".

To put an end to drunkenness, which negatively affected the combat effectiveness of the army, the Prophet Muhammad introduced a ban on the use of alcohol. There were other reasons for the ban. One of the main duties of a Muslim is to perform namaz-a five-time prayer during the day. Namaz is accompanied by a whole series of body movements, which in their strict sequence make up the so-called "rakat". Each rakat includes a waist bow, kneeling, bowing to the ground, kneeling and prostration.

The festive and Friday prayers performed in the mosque contain even more rak'ahs. It is clear that in a state of intoxication, all these gestures with their clear and strict order are simply impossible to perform.

At the same time, it is known that even during the lifetime of Muhammad, many residents of Mecca and Medina became so addicted to wine that they began to neglect the prayer, perform it haphazardly, thereby violating the following commandment of the Qur'an: "O you who believe! Don't go near prayer when you're drunk." "Wine is an abomination from the work of Satan. Avoid it!" - the Prophet Muhammad called his followers.

Another reason for the prophet's struggle for sobriety was this. Although the Arabs were familiar with wine - "drinks of the fruits of palm trees and vines" - yet wine production in Arabia on a large scale was not practiced: dates grown in oases were primarily used for food, grapes-for the production of raisins. And the Arabian soil itself is unfavorable for viticulture.

Wine was imported to Arabia from Syria, Palestine and Iraq. Wine merchants who supplied alcohol to the Bedouin tribes were Christians and Jews. It was very expensive. Nomadic Arabs often lost their possessions due to their addiction to wine, drinking their flocks to the last camel. There are many sad verses about this in pre-Muslim Arabic poetry. The Bedouin poet Tarawa ibn al-Abd was even expelled from the tribe for excessive spending in wine shops. And the famous eighth-century Arab poet Abu Nuwas, who was also addicted to wine drinking, wrote:

A bandit in the desert threatened me with a sword,-

I didn't mind the whole gang.

And the wine merchant robbed the guest like that,

That I was trudging home with almost nothing on.

(Translated by S. Shirvinsky)

Islam, of course, regarded the adherents of Christianity and Judaism, who sold wine to the Arabs and made them drunk in the pursuit of profit, as its worst enemies. And the wine supplied by them appeared in the eyes of the followers of Muhammad as an impure, sinful, forbidden product. The negative attitude of Muslims towards alcohol also stemmed from their rejection of the cult practice of Judaism and Christianity, where wine is used in some rituals (in Judaism, wine consumption is mandatory on religious holidays, for example, on Purim, as well as on Fridays, after the Kadush prayer; in Christianity, there is a special ritual of the Eucharist - communion with red wine, symbolizing "the blood of Christ").

But not all devout Muslims observed the Koranic prohibitions on alcoholic beverages. Thus, the Seljuk wazir Nizam al-Mulk in his essay "Siyaset-nameh" tells in detail about the nighttime drunkenness of Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznevi (998-1030). One of the Turkish sultans-caliphs - Selim P (1566-1574) even went down in history under the name of Mest (Drunkard), because apart from heavy drinking, he was not famous for anything else.

The famous Persian poet Omar Khayyam (1048-1122) did not observe the prohibitions on the use of wine, but, as we would say now, for scientific, materialistic reasons.

Why is this cup colorless and dry?

Where is the Reich's spirit-boosting ruby?

Forget the taboos of Islam for a while,

Don't grieve alone, get drunk for two!

Or:

It is better to live a short life without praying,

It is better to live a short life having fun.

There's nothing better than this pile of rubble

Drink wine with a beauty, sprawling on the grass!

(Translated by G. Plisetsky)

And today the ban on alcohol in some Muslim countries is observed very strictly (Saudi Arabia, Libya, Iran), in others the attitude to wine is more free (Turkey, Tunisia, Lebanon, Syria).

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