S. A. Bessonov, Moscow: IAfr RAS, 2013, 174 p. (in Russian)

(Scientific Notes of the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Issue 31)

The next issue of the 31st issue of Scientific Notes of the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences is extremely diverse and covers such aspects as the role of the public sector in the context of investment regime liberalization, the reasons for some of the economic successes of most countries in the first decade of the XXI century, problems and difficulties that do not allow the continent's states to fully overcome the legacy of the colonial past, in particular, the continued dependence on external financial resources, etc.

For the convenience of the reader, the articles are grouped into four sections in accordance with the key aspects of the problems considered: modernization, financing, industrial development, and the influence of external factors.

Thus, S. A. Bessonov, in his article "The economy of African countries in the context of the global economic crisis", points out that the main driver of the development of the national economy of Tropical Africa in the pre-crisis years up to 2007 was a high demand for raw materials, mainly oil and minerals, which, in turn, reflected the weak diversification of the African economy and, consequently, the, its foreign trade. Economic growth has been declining since the end of the last decade. This has led many African Governments to increase their focus on the economy. In particular, measures were taken to liberalize the conditions for investment, simplify the opening of business and registration of companies, introduce various incentive tariffs, etc.

The author rightly notes that the global crisis did not affect the economies of Tropical Africa as much as it did Europe and America, primarily due to the presence of traditional, pre-capitalist lifestyles in the region, especially in agriculture. They are characterized by underdeveloped financial relations, the predominance of natural production and direct product exchange. Therefore, paradoxically, the backwardness of the economies of African countries was the main reason that the external crisis had little impact on their development.

In another article, "Traditionalism and Modernization in African Economies", S. A. Bessonov examines the correlation and mutual influence of these two areas of economic development on the continent. Pointing out that Africa still remains the most backward continent, he emphasizes that the main reason for this is the predominance of low-productive industries based mainly on manual equipment and technologies, combined with the concept of "traditional production method". More or less modern mechanized production is more likely to be an enclave, more connected with developed economies than with the main part of the national economy. That is, traditionalism is a centuries-old, and therefore habitual way of life and management.

In turn, modernization, which, according to the author, is the main path of economic and social progress in general, pushes traditionalism mainly by external, violent ways, in particular by the threat of starvation and ruin of farms, state sanctions, etc. Modern modernization is based on the formation and development of market relations.

relationships. The interaction of modernization and traditionalism is manifested in their struggle and at the same time mutual influence, as a result of which pseudo-modernization and neotraditionalism can arise. These are transitional, sometimes stagnant, states of the economy in backward societies.

Modernization in African countries affects different industries and regions unevenly. Services and export industries, as well as coastal areas, are developing most rapidly. The periphery, agriculture, small-scale trade and light industry remain backward. Regionally, modernization has advanced the most in North African countries, and the least in the economies of inland countries.

I. B. Matsenko (Sub-Saharan Africa: Implementing the Millennium Development Goals) Indicates that the most notable progress made in Africa in the social sphere is in the expansion of primary education, in the fight against AIDS and in reducing child mortality. Interestingly, it is Tropical Africa that has the world's highest primary education enrollment growth of 36% (p. 20). Meanwhile, everywhere on the continent, poverty, hunger, unemployment are growing, inequality remains high, and maternal mortality is not decreasing. There are still a large number of hungry people, about 265 million. According to the author, "this is due not only to the economic crisis, but also to natural disasters (droughts, floods, locust infestations) and armed conflicts" (p. 22).

In the articles "External financing of investments in water supply programs and construction of irrigation and wastewater treatment systems" and "The role of the African Development Bank in investing in infrastructure in Africa", V. V. Pavlov points out that in 2010-2012, many countries of the continent "put on the agenda long-term tasks of practical implementation of very large-scale projects... sometimes more than ambitious investment programs to provide drinking water and regular water supply to the population... " (p. 55). In his opinion, such a strategy objectively corresponds to the key goals of accelerating economic development and modernizing the economy, primarily the agricultural sector. However, many African countries do not have the necessary financial resources, including foreign exchange, and adequate technologies to implement such expensive and usually extremely capital-intensive and technically complex projects. Therefore, the main focus of their financing is on attracting resources from external sources.

Considering options for financing infrastructure projects in Africa, V. V. Pavlov notes that local commercial banks, as well as incorporated and foreign banks, are increasingly facing a shortage of necessary funds. In this context, the role and share of the African Development Bank (AfDB) in direct financing of infrastructure projects has significantly increased.

G. E. Roshchin (Improving the Investment Climate) argues that "foreign capital flowing to Africa through public and private channels plays a significant role in maintaining economic and financial equilibrium in most countries of the continent" (p. 75). However, the development goals of these countries and the global interests of foreign public and private corporations do not always coincide. Therefore, an important task for African Governments is to ensure mutually beneficial partnership conditions with foreign capital and its effective participation in the development of the national economy.

In the article "Evolution of directions of industrial development" L. N. Kalinichenko raises the issue of strategies, directions and methods of industrialization in African countries. In particular, the author points out that "the competitiveness and efficiency of small enterprises significantly increases with the emergence of industrial clusters, which are agglomerations of a large number of industries of one or several related industries in a certain area" (p. 95). Clusters may include educational institutions that train personnel and a research base that studies advanced technologies. The author argues that state participation is important in the implementation of structural transformations of industry in developing countries in Africa. One cannot rely solely on market relations, since the market itself is often very slow to implement technological progress and ignores environmental concerns. "The role of the state is also to coordinate industrial policy with monetary and fiscal policies, to create an investment climate, determine a favorable exchange rate, and develop infrastructure" (p.97).

N. F. Matveeva (Business Education in Kenya) points out that this type of education was included in Kenyan school curricula adopted in 1985 and focused on development

practical skills of students and providing them with vocational training. "In fact, the new programs reflected the Kenyan authorities' concerns about the growing problem of employment among educated youth and the growing disparity between the training system and the actual needs of the economy" (p.103). Meanwhile, the programs have been criticized by the broadest segments of the Kenyan public because of the apparent inability to combine general education with vocational training in a comprehensive school. For example, the programs included such subjects as "metalworking", "electrical engineering", "mechanics", etc., which required appropriate material and technical equipment of schools. Although the state allocated certain funds for this purpose, the main burden of expenses fell on the parents of students. As a result, many practical subjects could only be studied "in theory".

Currently, the tasks of developing business education in higher education institutions are becoming more and more urgent. Some universities have already established business schools as a structural unit, which are trying to organize the teaching of relevant subjects at the European level.

Z. S. Novikova focuses on "Export-production zones in seaports as a factor of economic progress" - an important part of the global infrastructure that unites the world economy into a single whole. The author notes that international trade is a form of globalization. "The need to export the products of the richest deposits of oil, iron, copper, bauxite ores, coal and other minerals discovered in Africa has led to the construction of specialized ports with a cargo turnover of tens of millions of tons. They were built by foreign mining companies that developed mineral deposits" (p. 112). Major ports have emerged in Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Mauritania, Liberia, Guinea, and South Africa.

At the same time, being a monopoly of the state, many African ports are characterized by low productivity and low standards of service. As a result, transport costs were the highest in the world, which was one of the reasons for the weak competitiveness of African products in the global market. According to the author, one of the solutions to the problem may be to reform maritime transport and provide port operations to private partners.

Free economic zones in Africa have different forms. The most common one is free trade zones (FTZs). Their appearance on the continent was due to the export specialization of individual countries in the international division of labor. An element of the FTA is trade and warehouse zones (TCZ), where goods of foreign origin can be stored without paying customs duties. The creation of such zones is particularly relevant for Africa, where 14 countries have no access to the sea and are vitally interested in the transit of export-import cargo through the nearest seaports of neighboring countries.

E. A. Bragina ("The UNDP Poverty Index and the problem of poverty on the African continent") focused on the problem of the relationship between the scale of poverty, the diversity of its forms, the increase or decrease in the number of poor people under the influence of external and internal conditions. The author notes that the poor in Africa are different groups of the population-peasants with the smallest land plots, agricultural workers, small tenants, rural and urban artisans, artisans. "In agriculture, the number of poor people is particularly high, as women remain the main labor force in this sector, but their rights to land ownership are very difficult to confirm" (p. 123). In addition, up to 40% of food is lost due to weak infrastructure and high gasoline prices. The continent's countries are 60% dependent on imported food, and rising food prices are becoming a disaster for millions of people. Frequent crop failures and natural disasters dramatically increase the number of poor people. Moreover, even a slight decrease in income leads to a transition from a state of poverty to extreme poverty.

In the article "Participation of African states in the forum of natural gas exporting countries: is cartelization of the global gas market possible?" V. Y. Kukushkin points out that gas exports from North Africa are experiencing significant growth at the beginning of this decade. However, considerable efforts will be required to solve the problem of" overstocking " of global gas markets. Noting the opposite price trends in the oil and gas markets, the author proves that they were influenced by "firstly, the opposite dynamics of market changes in the winter-spring of 2011 (during the "Arab Spring". SK), and secondly, diametrically opposite changes in the price of oil and gas."-

the impact on these markets of deep political destabilization in the region, where the largest exporters of hydrocarbons are concentrated" (p. 132). V. V. Kukushkin makes an interesting observation that the current oil situation in some sense repeats the situation of the early 1970s. on the eve of the last of the "multilateral" Arab-Israeli wars, which involved several Arab states at once, followed by the announcement of an "oil embargo" to the West and the first price revolution of 1973-1974 for almost all energy raw materials.

T. S. Denisova, in her article "Conflicts in African countries: the formation of the "economy of war", noting that economic inequality and lack of access to necessary natural resources, water sources, fertile lands, pastures, and minerals are the main causes of conflicts in Africa, points out that not only the enrichment of rebel leaders, but also the lack of access to natural resources, water sources, fertile lands, pastures, and minerals are the main causes of conflicts in Africa. at least "a slight improvement in the living conditions of the population supporting the rebels and participating in the extraction and smuggling of diamonds, oil, rare earth metals and other minerals leads to the fact that a large part of Africans consider civil wars as a way to improve, rather than worsen, the economic situation" and that "the lack of leadership of the militants in some cases". It makes the difference between wars and ordinary criminal squabbles very clear" (p. 158).

The author argues that the main participants in the war, as a rule, are interested in its continuation, if during it they receive large incomes. But the peripheral "shareholders", which are not always easy to identify, play an equally important role, and often the main one, in the emergence and escalation of a military-political crisis. These are foreign entrepreneurs, companies, and Governments involved in exploiting the natural resources of a conflict-affected country; individuals or groups involved in the arms trade or smuggling of war-looted property, drugs (the drug trade flourishes during the conflict), and illegally extracted minerals; mercenaries; private security companies; banks, and other organizations involved in the conflict. involved in the laundering of "dirty" money obtained from participation in criminal activities, etc.

T. S. Denisova points out that armed conflicts in Africa are a long-standing phenomenon. What was new in the 1980s and 2000s was the emergence of warlords who fought not so much for power as for personal enrichment and improving the financial situation of their families, associates, tribesmen, etc., in contrast to political leaders who fought for national liberation.

The book is a comprehensive study of the processes observed in the economic development of the African continent as a whole and in certain industrial sectors in particular. National economic problems are considered taking into account the huge impact of global markets and international trade and economic relations on the African economy. That is why the collection will be useful not only for African and Oriental scholars, but also for specialists in the field of international relations and foreign trade.

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