I. O. Abramova, E. V. Morozenskaya, Moscow: Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2010, 308 p.

The beginning of 2011 was marked by a sharp increase in interest in the situation in North Africa in connection with the events in Tunisia and Egypt. Two explanations dominated the flow of information about the causes of acute political aggravation: disregard for the rights of citizens by the top leaders of countries that have held office for decades, non-observance of basic democratic freedoms, and low living standards of the main segments of the population. Both are true, with the caveat that the similar situation in most of the continent's countries has not always led to political explosions of this magnitude. For example, in Gabon, Omar Bongo held the presidency for 42 years on the basis of regular elections until his natural death, spending huge amounts of money on palaces in Nice, while ordinary citizens of the country lived on cassava and fish. He was clearly helped to stay in power for so many years by revenues from oil exports. The country has one of the highest per capita incomes on the continent - $ 14,528. President

Robert Mugabe, who ruined Zimbabwe during several terms in office, dropped this figure to $ 157. according to the PPP, which practically means its absence, but the people there are silent.

Grassroots explosions occur as a result of a more complex combination of factors than those noted above. Along with economic and political reasons, the role of socio-psychological motivations increases, which are largely formed under the influence of the demonstration effect. Modern mass media and the Internet have made the virtual reality of Western-style globalization obvious, vivid, and quasi-real for countries with lagging economic development. Its effect primarily affects the sphere of consumption in a broad sense, generating comparisons with other opportunities created by the availability of education, medical services, and a modern lifestyle. The latent irritation of people, especially the urban population, largely determines the apparent spontaneity of protest actions, their unpredictability, formlessness,and lack of obvious political leadership.

In the long run, the economic policy of the government, which affects the vital interests of different strata with a plus or minus sign, is of particular importance in this complex of reasons. In Africa, due to the specific nature of political structures and institutions, economic inequality, psychological fatigue, and political discontent of groups excluded from public service and sharing opportunities are growing, resulting in demands for change. Gradually, the state of indefinite variability in society increases, the negative mood of large masses of people breaks out on the surface of the street (square) performances that are unexpected for the ruling elite, seemingly without immediate reasons, drawing various segments of the population into this whirlpool.

In the context of developments on the continent, the reviewed monograph is very important for analyzing market transformations that inevitably affect the balance of power in African countries today and give grounds for short-term forecasting attempts. The plan of the book is well thought out, the presentation of problems is based on a combination of general approaches to market transformations and their industry-specific, as well as factorial features, which helped to show the complexity of the topic under consideration. The persistent repetition of the word "development" in the table of contents (five times) is not entirely successful, it would be better to diversify it.

First of all, the paper draws attention to a number of theoretical approaches to the problem. In the introduction, E. V. Morozenskaya states: "Economic growth has always been accompanied by the development of market relations..." (p. 10), which is true, but too general - at different historical stages, the nature of market relations was not always associated with economic growth. For example, slave markets in ancient times had a different economic meaning than markets in the early Middle Ages, let alone in modern times. The problem now is not only and not so much in the growth rate, but in its quality, interaction with well-established local economic structures and institutions, especially when it comes to African States. The experience of the entire second half of the twentieth century has shown that market relations in the community now referred to as the countries of the South, despite all the differences between them, are formed in difficult coexistence with traditional structures.

A relatively new direction of economic theory, known as Development Studies, initially linked the main hopes for overcoming backwardness by new subjects of the world economy using the experience of the West, primarily with various options for industrialization. Chapter I, "Emerging markets", notes a number of strategies that have followed one another quite quickly and in practice have mostly failed in the specific circumstances of African countries. Among the many reasons for the slowdown were the specific structure of the economy with a decisive preponderance of the inefficient agricultural sector and the strength of local non-market institutions. Their co-existence in most countries led to the result noted by V. O. Klyuchevsky regarding the Russian reforms of the late 19th century: "Admiring how the reforms transformed tradition, they did not notice how tradition defeated the reforms." The experience of Africa confirms that the combination of modernization attempts borrowed from outside and / or implemented from above (no third option), with the dominance of local stagnant socio-economic structures significantly complicates economic progress. By 2000. The per capita income gap between the countries of Tropical Africa and the OECD has grown to a ratio of 1: 20. "This means that the continent is actually becoming more marginalized in the global economy" (p. 19).

The stage of searching for methods that can bring the way out of backwardness closer, during which mistakes and failures are inevitable, is passed by all lagging countries. One of its important results was the understanding that a simple borrowing, a kind of" transplantation", of someone else's experience in most cases generates its rejection. Chapter I uses extensive material that demonstrates the difference of views and schools on this issue, but I would like to see more references to the work of Russian researchers. It is doubtful that the African countries "did not have a low-level equilibrium characterized by self-perpetuation of poverty" (p. 35). Perhaps it was necessary to explain what kind of equilibrium we are talking about and where it took place. A pro-market policy, which can be considered an officially proclaimed set of economic measures implemented by governments with varying degrees of consistency in the countries of the continent, inevitably leads to a violation of the balance, objectively opposing stagnation. In many cases, the ruling circles are trying to preserve the economic order that is familiar and beneficial to them by political methods. With regard to poverty, this phenomenon is repeated, and not only in African countries, with different growth rates, as well as the alternation of economic breakthroughs and waste.

The paper rightly points out that when using macroeconomic indicators necessary for understanding the ongoing processes, it is necessary to take into account the weakness of statistics that researchers of the continent's problems deal with, which is clearly demonstrated, for example, by the table "Correlations of Growth indicators" (p.39). But the difficulties and incompleteness of accounting do not explain why Africa is still lagging behind other regions of the South. It not only persists, but also increases, as the continent's weak economies react more sharply than others to negative external factors, such as the recent economic crisis. The number of people living below the poverty line increased in Sub-Saharan Africa by one and a half times during the crisis years.

Statistical difficulties are not least related to the presence of a large informal sector in the continent's countries, whose share ranges from 25 to 50% or more of their GDP. But this is only part of the problem. Its negative impact affects the economy as a whole, including non-payment of taxes, the predominance of low-quality production, in-kind forms of remuneration, not to mention the criminal component. In the report of experts to the World Economic Forum "Global Risks 2011", this niche was named among the threats to development. The Forum highlighted nearly 40 potential risks facing the global economy, but what makes Africa different is their high concentration on the continent. The informal economy, with its special laws, inevitably generates massive corruption at the grassroots level, which primarily harasses the poorest population. The informal sector reproduces backward forms of production and services in response to the undifferentiated demand of the population with very low incomes. It is also a unique labor market, which is estimated to employ two-thirds of the world's labor force.

As always, the problem of industrial development is controversial, which is considered by L. N. Kalinichenko in chapter VI "Features of industrial development in sub-Saharan Africa". At the initial stage of import-substituting growth, positive results were achieved, which is always the case when the initial level is extremely low. However, by the end of the last century, the manufacturing sector's growth rate barely exceeded 2%, rising to 3.2% between 2000 and 2007, lagging behind that of most countries in the South. Nevertheless, the countries of the region were able to start exporting manufacturing products, including some high-tech goods. The growth of the industrial potential of Mauritius is indicative due to the creation of an export-production zone (EPZ) with the participation of TNCs, which is based on small and medium-sized enterprises. It would be interesting to provide data on the growth (or lack thereof) of labor productivity in this niche. At the same time, it seems that the author exaggerates the possibilities of creating, and most importantly, the sustainability of such zones, although the text notes how vulnerable the situation of Mauritius is as a result of the increasing pressure of capital and goods from China. The enclave nature of industrial production in most countries of the continent remains. This industry has not been able to become an integrator of the economic space by developing direct and reverse connections.

Attention is drawn to the problem of the oil and gas industry, presented by V. Y. Kukushkin in chapter VII "The importance of the oil and gas industry for the development of Africa" on the basis of extensive factual material. The number of African countries exporting hydrocarbons is constantly growing, as is the scale of their production. (The term "production" in the title of the table on p. 146 " About-

However, these data, not supported by financial indicators, give a one-sided picture, this is, so to speak, a technical point. External oil and gas supplies are intended to generate foreign currency earnings. It would be important to assess its scale and impact on national economies and the reasons for the drying up of this resource source, which weakly feeds economic growth. The author refers to rental incomes, describing them as "extremely variable", but adds that they are "on average for the last 30 - 35 years one of the maximum in the world economy" (p. 138). There is a typical discrepancy between the ability to use resources in the interests of the producing country and the group interest of the ruling circles. The example of African countries allows us to show the parasitic nature of private appropriation of rent.

The theme of China's presence on the African continent, which is mentioned in a number of chapters of the book, is very relevant, and it can be assumed that it will take its proper place in the future works of the authors of the reviewed book. The proposal made by China at the end of 2010 for South Africa, the most economically powerful country in Africa, to join the BRIC is noteworthy. In addition, the PRC has significantly increased lending to developing countries in recent years, including during the crisis, when external financing opportunities were extremely limited for them. With $ 2 trillion in gold and foreign exchange reserves and the continued support of the Government, Chinese businesses, especially banking, are successfully expanding access to raw materials in the African continent.

The most complex industry, which is difficult to adapt to market transformation, is agriculture in Africa, where a concentrated combination of high employment rates with limited fertile soils and low yields of basic food products. Regular hunger, malnutrition among the poor, and the frequent need for urgent importation of food by international organizations are a daily occurrence of the continent. V. P. Morozov, in chapter VIII "Comradeship of agriculture and the food problem", focuses on the leading role of the agricultural sector in the economy with the predominance of traditional forms of management, small-scale production. Due to the peculiarities of the soil and climate, the countries of the continent maintain their positions in the world markets of a number of industrial and tropical crops, the production of which, in comparison with the grain and food sectors, is generally characterized by a high level of marketability. The author's conclusion sounds pessimistic: "The volume of agricultural products produced barely covers the internal food needs of the continent's countries..." (p.155). This means a high degree of vulnerability in such a priority area as food security. Food production per capita in a number of countries (Benin, Cameroon, Chad, Uganda, etc.) in 2007 It was below the level of 2000 (p. 165). "In general, the share of food imports in the consumption fund of various regions of Africa varies between 20 and 40%" (p. 168).

The complex of these negative indicators indicates the urgency of the problem of modernization of the agricultural sector. V. P. Morozov gives the main directions of possible implementation of such a process. They are correct and useful, but they have serious drawbacks - their implementation requires large financial investments, organizational efforts of the state, and time. True, there is an encouraging experience of the "green revolution", but it seems that the situation on the African continent is much more complicated, and the initial level of the agricultural sector is lower than in Asian countries that have managed to increase grain harvesting. There is still a huge distance between the recognition of the need for modernization measures and their implementation.

Another unfulfilled hope remains foreign development assistance through interstate programs and the UN. The UN's goal of allocating 0.7% of GDP to developed countries has been met only by a small group of Nordic countries. The UN Millennium Development Goals Summit in late 2010 noted the particular complexity of the economic situation in Africa, especially in the Sub-Saharan region. Although the decision was made to increase economic assistance from developed countries, it is unlikely to be implemented, as the crisis has limited the financial capacity of donor countries, and existing experience has shown a low return on funds provided and their constant embezzlement on the ground. It is easy to assume that the expected secession and political independence of South Sudan as a result of the 2010 referendum will inevitably increase its need for international assistance. The problem of its inflow and at the same time low efficiency in the specific conditions of African countries require further careful analysis, since due to the current conditions, this is one of the long-term directions of world economic relations.

The study of market transformation in Africa, as in other emerging economies, is directly related to the expansion of State functions. Their assessments are ambiguous, often revised, and therefore the analysis in chapter III "Peculiarities of state regulation in Africa" (authors - E. V. Morozenskaya, part 1, 3; V. V. Pavlov, part 2) of the peculiarities of attitudes to the state and its tasks in different spheres of the economy deserves attention. In fact, these are possible combinations in the public-private sector system in conditions when both participants do not cope with their roles and responsibilities. The current crisis has increased government intervention in the economy in all countries, but there is a fundamental difference if it occurs within the framework of an established market economy with an extensive financial infrastructure or in an unstable transition economy. Objectively, national interests require strengthening the role of the state to create a development environment favorable for private business. This primarily applies to the legitimacy and real protection of all 11 positions that make up the set of property rights. Lagging behind in the banking system, including due to the instability of the legislative framework, inevitably increases risks for all types of businesses.

It is logical that the main area of public administration is budgetary, but even here some features of it in African countries are negatively affected, primarily by the growth of expenditures on the maintenance of the bureaucratic apparatus and defense. Together, they account for up to 30% of current budget expenditures, which inevitably leads to various forms of deficit financing in conditions of chronic lack of funds (p.75). The possibilities for increasing budget revenues are extremely limited due to the poverty of the population and the weakness of local businesses, so governments resort to increasing customs duties, thereby worsening the investment climate in their countries. External borrowing has become a permanent feature of the state budget and domestic investment financing projected for a long period of time.

Special attention should be paid to the demographic problem in the countries of the continent, which is constantly exerting increasing pressure on the socio-economic situation in general. Of course, the paper presents strong indicators that confirm that Africa has the highest population growth rates in the world (p. 265, 266). The preponderance of young people in its structure means that this trend will continue for the coming decades, with all the ensuing consequences and aggravation of all existing problems. Well-known Russian demographer A. G. Vishnevsky noted: "Africa is becoming a reservoir of a growing population - even though its economic opportunities are very limited."

Currently, much is written about the demographic dividend in developing countries, the benefits that can be provided by the presence of a young working-age labor force in them, as opposed to aging in developed economies. But in itself, this dividend can be obtained only under two basic conditions - the ability to ensure employment of labor resources and a certain level of their professional training. I. B. Matsenko in chapter XIV "Human factor development and the labor market" clearly defined the peculiarity of the labor market, when the supply of labor in African countries chronically exceeds the number of jobs. both available and long-term, in other words, there is an employment crisis. The method of its extensive solution in the context of Africa with a stable preponderance of traditional (labor-intensive) types of economy and a high proportion of child labor and labor of older (over 64 years old) people can only be used on a limited scale.

There is another contradiction introduced by the current economic crisis. It is estimated that the expected post-crisis recovery of developed countries will be carried out mainly on a high-tech basis with a falling demand for live labor (jobless recovery). This may lead to further restrictions on immigration, while tightening the qualification and professional requirements for potential migrants. Increasing legal entry to Western countries as a possible way to mitigate pressure on the domestic labor market in the supplier states is hardly realistic. Currently, the size of transfers from African diasporas to their countries of origin is significantly lower in absolute terms compared to similar flows to countries in Asia and Latin America.

In chapter V, it is noted that in the first decades of independence, the surplus labor force and the underdevelopment of local economic structures led to attempts in African countries to theoretically justify the use of middle-level, rural, and intermediate-level equipment. However, the futility of this path was later recognized by S. Amin, one of the ideologists

this direction (p. 101). A new technological breakthrough in Western countries may further increase the difference in labor productivity levels between developed and emerging economies.

The need of developed countries for African markets and at the same time sources of raw materials as an objective feature of the world economy has developed, but it has not solved employment problems. Individual successes, such as the flower business in Kenya, which supplies red roses to the Netherlands, which allowed to employ about 500 thousand people, indicate (if the indicator is correct) about unexpected opportunities in the context of globalization, but they are few (p. 106). They can be expanded due to the growth of mobile communications, which are actively promoted in the countries of the continent by foreign, including Indian, companies. But in this indicator, Africa lags significantly behind Asia and Latin America.

How effective are regional markets in these conditions? The number of integration groups on the continent, as noted by V. K. Wiegand in chapter IV "Prospects for the development of regional markets", has reached 14. 67 states participate in them (officially there are 53 of them on the continent), since some of them are simultaneously members of several associations. This is the case when the quantity has not changed and probably will not change to quality in the foreseeable future. The author believes that the role of the private sector in the development of national markets has been growing since the mid-1980s. Supporting this position, I note that the role of private national capital needs a more in-depth analysis in the book as a whole. It can be assumed that in the foreseeable future, the largest Western TNCs will continue to operate as integrators based on the use of cross-border operations. It is possible for them to include local private enterprises in their production and distribution networks, which suggests the existing experience of Mauritius.

A recognized actor in the development of national markets in Africa is foreign private capital in the form of foreign direct investment (FDI). In Chapter XII, "The role of foreign entrepreneurial capital", G. E. Roshchin records the sharpness of competition in the global financial market for attracting these resources and the relatively weak positions of African countries in terms of their investment attractiveness, they account for approximately 3% of global FDI inflows, with the least developed countries accounting for only 0.3% (p. 235). Traditionally, the main suppliers of private investment resources with a focus on raw materials are TNCs of leading Western countries. The author noted the growing role of South Africa in sub-Saharan Africa's FDI, but increasing competition from Asian companies, primarily Chinese and Indian, may change the balance of power in this area.

The authors of the peer-reviewed monograph were faced with a difficult task-to show how, in what forms market transformations occur or do not occur, poorly implemented in a group of over 50 countries that are united primarily by the geographical principle-they are located on the same continent. Otherwise, they are characterized by significant differences and difficulties of an economic, political (a long series of military conflicts for different reasons), social, and environmental nature. The sad list of negatives can be continued.

The book is full of factual material, which is useful for the reader, but apparently this partly explains some repetitions and carelessness. A well-known expert on emerging economies appears as Collier and Collier (p. 34, 37). In Table 3 (p. 164), the years are mixed up. The abundance of long, eight-line phrases is striking (for example, on pages 68, 78, 136 and beyond). A certain inconsistency can be seen in the conclusion. How reasonable is the above-mentioned opinion of UNIDO about "jumping over" the industrial stage, including with the help of the latest information and computer technologies" (p. 296)? The source of the latest technologies may be primarily and mainly private foreign capital in Africa, but its inflow is growing slowly. Doesn't IT remind us of the long-lost construction of socialism, theoretically and practically, bypassing capitalism? In addition, further in the text there is such a position: "It plays an important role in accelerating economic growth and modernizing its structure... industrialization can play a role" (p. 301). There is also a streamlined phrase: "in many countries of the continent, measures have been taken to structurally transform the economy" (p. 295). However, it is known that the adoption of measures and real structural changes can be separated from each other for decades. In Asian countries, they became closer in time. Most African countries seem to have been delayed in taking action.

It is good that the book ends with a brief summary of the main content of the chapters in English. In general, the authors ' work presents the main directions of economic transformation planned in African countries, the stages and difficulties of this process, its internal inconsistency, fraught with inevitable changes of relatively rare advances and frequent rollbacks. The pessimistic conclusion about the negative long-term socio-economic consequences of the current situation is justified.

Permanent link to this publication: